5.1 Ways Pupils Learn
Table 5.1.1 Psychological and cognitive research influences on education
5.1 Factors for effective learning
Use Table 5.1.1 Psychological and cognitive research influences on education to understand the relevant psychological and cognitive research.
The Piaget video in unit 4.3 will also be helpful here
| Theories | Key Propositions/Ideas | Implications for Learning | Main Theorists | Units |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Behaviourist Learning Theory | Started with experiments on animals; emphasises external stimuli for learning; concepts of operant and classical conditioning | Instructional learning, guided discovery, behaviour reinforcement/management | Pavlov (1897) Watson (1913) Skinner (1957) | 3.3 5.7 |
| Social Learning (later Social Cognitive) Theory | Emphasises impact of observational learning on cognition – abstract rules extracted from observing behaviour without such rules being explicitly stated; bridges behaviourist and cognitive-developmental theories | Peer learning, eg. ‘laddish’ ethos; modelling socially acceptable behaviour and norms | Bandura (1977) | 1.1 5.7 |
| Gestalt Theory | Perception driven by the brain’s search for ‘wholeness’; people reorganise information to impose order on it using principles of proximity, similarity, figure-ground, continuity, closure and connection | Provide big picture in advance of detailed information; ensure context is clear | Wertheimer (1923) Koffka (1935) Kohler (1940) | |
| Cognitive –Develop Mental Theory | Developmental maturation through stages needed for learning; experience of world leads to assimilation and accommodation of new concepts Extrapolation of stage theory beyond cognition to social, emotional and ethical development | Pupils only learn certain concepts when ready; provide pupil-centred discovery learning; concrete examples assist abstract thinking. Discuss moral issues; be alert to adolescent sensitivities | Piaget (1932) Kohlberg (1976) Selman (1980) | 4.3 4.5 |
| Meta cognition and Self-Regulation Theories | Learning to learn: understanding and controlling own learning strategies | Encourage techniques for remembering, ways of presenting information when thinking and approaches to problem-solving | Flavell (1979) Adey (1992, 2008) Shayer and Adey (2002) | 4.3 5.5 6.1 |
| Social Constructivist Theory | Knowledge is socially constituted and actively restructured through experience with the environment; language is central to development of thinking | Use group work, pupil talk and teacher scaffolding/structured intervention to promote higher level thinking | Vygotsky (1962, 1978) Bruner (1966) Wood 1988 | 5.7 |
| Constructivist Theory | People make their own sense of things in a unique way by examining it in relation to prior conceptions and experiences and see to what extent it fits; existing conceptions are paramount | Avoid direct instruction – create situations which facilitate pupils constructing their own knowledge starting with their own mis/conceptions | Driver and Bell (1986) | |
| Information – processing theory | Concept development involves reconstructing rather than recalling ‘schema’; key memory and retrieval processes are attention, analysis and retention. | Link new knowledge to what is already known; move from general to specific using sequential procedures; use key words and ideas to cue the learner; meaningful not rote learning. | Bartlett (1932) Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) | 5.3 |
| Cognitive Load Theory | CLT builds from IP theory; extraneous stimuli impedes pupils’ ability to process new information and to create long-term memories | Information overload and distractions must be avoided or limited | Sweller (1988) |
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Cognitive Load Theory
View the series of simple videos on Cognitive load theory on YouTube
Cognitive Load Theory 1 – An introduction
Table 5.1.3 Psychometric, personality and individual thinking/learning style research
| Theories | Key Propositions/Ideas | Implications for Learning | Main Theorists | Units |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Self – perception/Self-actualisation Theory | Socially interactive nature of self-perception – ‘looking-glass self’; critical role of significant others in developing self-concept; need to reach potential – ‘self-actualise’ | Manage impact of peer and teacher approval on self-construct; reinforce positive self-esteem, eg. Circle Time | Cooley (1902) Carl Rogers’ (1983) | 1.3 3.4 4.2 |
| Psycho- Metric and Personality Trait Theories | Innate traits, tendencies and abilities; self-testing of traits on polar opposite continuums, eg. extravert – introvert | Respond to individual differences; encourage pupil understanding of individuality in PSE | Cattell (1946) Eysenck (1947) | |
| Motivation Theories: Needs Theory :Locus of ControlTheory/ Attribution Theory | 5 levels of need have to be met in order from basic physical needs to high-level cognitive ‘self-actualisation’. People with strong internal control believe success is due to their own efforts and talents; those with strong external control believe their success or progress is down to luck or other external factors such as task difficulty. | Meet lower levels of learner need, eg. breakfast club, to enable higher-order functioning. Develop interaction between intrinsic and extrinsic influences on learning to generate greater internal locus of control; eg. by rewarding effort and outcomes. | Maslow (1954) Rotter (1966) Weiner (1972) | 3.2 |
| Thinking Style Theories: Dual Coding Theory Cognitive Processing/Learning Style Learning Strategy Approach/Orientation | Image and verbal memory codes evolved as independent systems of mind; their interaction aids recall. Innate approach to thinking and processing information; often tested on polar opposite continuums, eg. field-dependent/independent or verbaliser/imager. Processing and perceiving dimensions intersect creating 4 learning quadrants; learners have a dominant quadrant. Dominant orientations: deep versus surface; achieving versus meaning | Combine images and verbal representations within tasks to extend cognitive development. Match learning tasks to ‘preferred’ processing style. Danger of pigeonholing pupils and limiting learning opportunities. Experiential learning develops non-dominant strategies. Create context and task expectations that encourage deep and meaning approaches. | Paivio (1971; 2007) Witkin et al (1977) Riding and Dyer (1980) Kolb (1976) Biggs (1978) Entwistle (1981) | 5.6 |
Dual coding
Watch this video to explore how dual coding can help us organize ideas.
researchED Home 2020 Oliver Caviglioli: Dual Coding to Organise Ideas
5.2 Active Learning
5.3 Teaching Styles
Table 5.3.3 Examples of activities that teachers might use in the classroom
- Mind maps
- Case studies
- Computer assisted learning
- Creative writing
- Directed Activities Related to use of texts (DARTS)
- Debating
- Designing
- Developing multimedia presentations
- Podcasts
- Animations
- Videos
- Diaries
- Drama/role play
- Formal presentations
- Games
- Interviewing
- Problem solving
- Reports
- Reciprocal teaching
- Role play
- Simulations
- Small group discussion.
- Surveys
- Teacher demonstration
- Visitors
Table 5.3.5 Mosston and Ashworth’s ‘Continuum of teaching styles’
These flashcards are based on Table 5.3.5. Use them to quickly test your understanding of the various teaching styles.
5.4 Improving your teaching
What is Action Research?
Watch this video to learn more about action research.
Explainer Video: What is Practitioner Research?
The importance of reflection and research-based practice.
Lesson reflection using Brookfield’s Lenses
5.4 Lesson Reflection using Brookfield’s Lenses5.5 Closing the Achievement Gap: Self-Regulation and Personalising Learning
Classroom approaches: teaching/pedagogical strategies
Factors in teaching and learning impact on the personalisation of learning; in this unit, self-regulation is considered in detail. Other concerns are noted here; each covered in this volume:
Grouping pupils and group work (see also Unit 2.3 and 4.1)
Collaborative group work is central to personalising learning – and differs from individual learning – so consideration of grouping options is helpful. Flexibility is key in ensuring a positive range of pupil experiences, and sometimes just for a refreshing change.
Assessment for Learning (see also Units 6.1 and 6.2)
Assessment for Learning (AfL) and assessment of learning are both relevant improving learning and teachers are exhorted to understand how the design of educational activities can enhance pupil learning through considering ‘assessment as part of pedagogy’ (Black and Wiliam, 2018, p.551).
The importance of questioning techniques (see also Unit 3.1)
The quality of questions both to pupils and from pupils is important, and the 1956 work of Bloom is a still much-used (often adapted) way of thinking about higher-order questioning. Numerous different versions of Bloom’s Taxonomy exist (Iowa State University, 2021), but a useful rule of thumb is to ensure that the higher-level aspects or types of thinking – analysis, evaluation and synthesis – are incorporated into all lessons (See Unit 5.2).
Task setting, problem-solving and investigations (see also Unit 5.2, 5.3, 5.9)
Real-life problems and in-depth investigations are preferable to disconnected tasks or isolated activities. ‘Thinking Actively in a Social Context’ (TASC) (Wallace, 2000), is a useful project planning and execution model for both long-term projects, and short-term activities. It is a flexible tool for thinking and discussing ideas and tasks, with no prescribed order for the various elements (below). The model can be presented in a circle with no specified start or end point.
- Gather/organise – What do I know about this?
- Identify – What is the task?
- Generate – How many ideas can I think of?
- Decide – Which is the best idea?
- Implement – Let’s do it!
- Evaluate – How well did I do?
- Communicate – Let’s tell someone!
- Learn from experience – What have I learned?
The model works well for all ages; there is guidance on its use on the National Association for Able Children in Education website (www.nace.co.uk/), along with many other helpful resources.
Cognitive issues: accelerated learning, learning styles and metacognition (see also Units 4.3, 5.1)
Some popular ideas about harnessing children’s cognitive processes have been controversial, such as the initially attractive notion of relying on ‘learning styles’, which has been shown as sometimes detrimental (Bjork et al., 2013). Metacognition, however, is more about focusing on how we learn and how we can improve our learning. Useful metacognitive techniques incorporate self-regulation, which helps pupils analyse their own strengths and weakness and develop their self-understanding in relation to their work (see Units 4.3 and 5.1 for more on multiple intelligences and metacognition).
5.6 Neuroeducation: Classroom practice and the brain
Science of Learning
Neuromyths: true or false?
The author has created a website about the concepts in this chapter mapped to the ITT Core Content Framework and Early Career Framework. Use these materials to develop your understanding of Neuroeducation: The Science of Learning: https://www.scienceoflearning-ebc.org/
Annex to Unit 5.6: Evidence basis for this unit
Annex to Unit 5.65.8 Creating a Language-Rich Classroom
Task 5.8.1 Lesson observation – secondary
Do a search on YouTube for “lesson observation secondary” and choose a lesson snippet. Use this for Task 5.8.1 OBSERVING AND ANALYSING WHOLE-CLASS DISCUSSION
Observe a 5–10 minute episode of whole-class discussion.
Make a note of:
- How many conversational ‘turns’ the teacher takes.
- How many turns pupils take.
Reflect and evaluate:
- How far does the pattern of interaction fit the ‘IRF’ pattern described above?
- What does the teacher do to try to encourage pupil participation in the discussion?
- How successful are they in doing this?
Discuss your reflections with a peer. Now pair up with a colleague and undertake the same exercise in one of the lessons you are teaching. Were the results what you had planned for? If not why not? Record the outcomes of your reflections and discussions in your professional portfolio.
Task 5.8.3 Incorporating comprehension strategies into lessons
Take a text for your subject that you might use in a lesson and create a lesson activity that explicitly teaches one of the comprehension strategies outlined above, perhaps using a DART activity.
Write a short paragraph explaining the rationale for the task you have developed.
DART activities
Use these flashcards to test your knowledge of different types of DART activities.
5.9 Pedagogy – The Science, Craft and Performance of Teaching
5.9 Building your secondary school oracy culture with the ESU
5.9 Boosting your students’ oracy skills with the ESU secondary school competition
5.9 Oracy skill sets: a guide
5.9 Oracy Skill Sets: A GuideTable 5.9.1 Essential learning theories underpinning pedagogy
Behaviourism
- Observable performance: what learners must do
- Stimulus and response
- Environment, routines, cues, prompts habits, mastery, practice
- Generalisation leads to application of learning
- Rewards and sanctions based on response reinforce learning
- Reactive learners
Cognitivism
- Cognitive: thinking, problem-solving, processing
- Drawn from cognitive science; neuroscience
- Development of knowledge: reception, memory, organisation, retrieval
- Environment, explanations, think-aloud, modelling, feedback
- Active learners
Constructivism
- Learner makes meaning from experience
- Links practice, knowledge and context in authentic and meaningful learning experiences
- Problem-based applications
- Focus on process as well as outcome
- Metacognition, self-regulation
- Social and collaborative learners
Cooking analogy
The Cooking Analogy is a useful way to understand the relationship between teaching and technology.
Table 5.9.3 Examples of terms describing pedagogic tools
These flashcards have been created from Table 5.9.3, and should be used to test your understanding of terms used to describe key pedagogical tools.