BPS Core Textbooks Series

Developed in collaboration with the British Psychological Society

Chapter 8 – A Troubled Cure for a Troubled Mind: Psychology’s Mastery of Metaphor

Chapter Summary

This chapter introduces metaphor as a critical thinking tool, encouraging us to question how metaphors shape what can be known, who can be known, and whose knowledge counts. Focusing on the work of William James and Sigmund Freud, it shows that metaphor is not merely a stylistic device but a constitutive element of knowledge, a way of constructing, not just describing, the mind. Through the contrasting metaphors of the ‘stream of consciousness’ and the ‘iceberg model’ of the unconscious, James and Freud created conceptual worlds that have profoundly influenced psychology’s epistemological foundations. Alongside these canonical figures, the chapter recovers two lesser known but intellectually formidable psychologists: Karen Horney and Leta Hollingworth. Horney challenged Freud’s gendered metaphors, proposing instead a dynamic, relational model of identity shaped by social pressure and cultural contradiction. Hollingworth used empirical data to dismantle the metaphor of female inferiority, replacing it with metaphors of growth, continuity, and potential. Their contributions highlight how metaphor operates as a site of both exclusion and resistance. In examining psychology’s mastery of metaphor, the chapter challenges the neutrality of scientific language and reveals how metaphor encodes gendered, cultural, and philosophical assumptions.

Chapter 8 – Quiz

  • Chapter 8 – Flashcards

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  • Chapter 8 – Key Readings

    Draaisma, D. (2000). Metaphors of memory: A history of ideas about the mind. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni9versity Press. 

    Green, C.D. (2019). Where did Freud’s iceberg metaphor of mind come from? History of Psychology, 22(4), 369-372. https://doi.org/10.1037/hop0000135_b 

    Harris, B. (2021). Eugenics, social reform, and psychology: The careers of Isabelle Kendig. History of Psychology, 24(4), 350–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/hop0000200 

    Johnston, E., & Johnson, A. (2017). Balancing life and work by unbending gender: Early American women psychologists’ struggles and contributions. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 53(3), 246–264. https://doi.org/10.1002/jhbs.21862 

    Knowles, E. S., & Sibicky, M. E. (1990). Continuity and diversity in the stream of selves: Metaphorical resolutions of William James’s one-in-many-selves paradox. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16(4), 676-687. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167290164008 

    Leary, D. E. (1990). Metaphors in the history of psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

    Leary, D. E. (1992). William James and the art of human understanding. American Psychologist, 47(2), 152–160. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.47.2.152 

    Richards, G. (1991). James and Freud: Two masters of metaphor. British Journal of Psychology, 82(2), 205–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1991.tb02395.x 

    Ruck, N., Luckgei, V., Rothmüller, B., Franke, N., & Rack, E. (2022). Psychologization in and through the women’s movement: A transnational history of the psychologization of consciousness-raising in the German-speaking countries and the United States. Journal of the History of the Behavioural Sciences, 58(3), 269–290. https://doi.org/10.1002/jhbs.22187 

    Rutherford, A. (2017). “Making better use of U.S. women”: Psychology, sex roles, and womanpower in post-WWII America. Journal of the History of the Behavioural Sciences, 53(3), 228–245. https://doi.org/10.1002/jhbs.21861 

    Soyland, A.J. (1994). Psychology as metaphor. Sage. 

    Sullivan, P. (2017). Towards a literary account of mental health from James’ Principles of Psychology, New Ideas in Psychology, 46, 31-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2016.02.003  

  • Chapter 8 – Reflective Questions

    1. How does metaphor shape what psychology is able to see and study? 
    2. In what ways do Freud’s and Horney’s models of the psyche reflect different views on gender and power? 
    3. What role does biography play in shaping psychological theory? 
    4. Can psychology ever be free of metaphor? Should it be? 
    5. Why is it important to recover the work of psychologists like Horney and Hollingworth?

  • Chapter 8 – Weblinks

    Sigmund Freud (The School of Life) – Educational Resource

    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQaqXK7z9LM

    This 7-minute video gives a clear and easy to understand overview of the work of Sigmund Freud in Psychotherapy, with easily navigable sections to the video in order to learn about specific points in the discussion.

    The Philosophy of William James – Let’s Talk Philosophy

    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7pc_eQ99kTI

    This 13-minute YouTube video gives an overview of William James’ entry and work in the American Philosophical Tradition, including discussions of epistemology, pluralism vs monism and radical empiricism, put into words in such a way that it is accessible for individuals who might be new to the topic.

    Karen Horney – Feminist Voices

    https://feministvoices.com/profiles/karen-horney

    This page gives a detailed overview of the life and works of Karen Horney in psychoanalysis, female psychosexual development and more, and gives easy-to-access resources for further reading into the topic.

    The Interpretation of Dreams (Sigmund Freud) – Wikipedia Overview

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Interpretation_of_Dreams

    This page gives an overview of the content and theoretical grounding behind Sigmund Freud’s work on the theory of the unconscious and gives early discussion of what would later become the Oedipus Complex, one of his more influential theories. There is also extensive further reading material on Freud and his work accessible from this page.

    History of Women in Psychology: Notable Figures in the Field (Maryville University) – Educational Resource

    https://online.maryville.edu/online-bachelors-degrees/psychology/resources/women-in-psychology

    This site gives access to information regarding the history and inclusion of women in the field of psychology, including relevant statistical information and links to further reading on specific theories used by and developed by women in the field.

    Leta Hollingworth – Feminist Voices

    https://feministvoices.com/profiles/leta-hollingworth

    This site gives a detail recounting of Leta’s early life as well as her contributions to various topics of discussion in psychology and includes key contextual information to provide detail on the culture surrounding her published works.

    James and Freud: Two Masters of Metaphor – British Psychological Society Archival Publication

    https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1991.tb02395.x#:~:text=Whereas%20the%20Jamesian%20metaphor%20works,form%20a%20complex%20new%20idea.

    This page provides a full publication of the seminal academic article discussing James and Freud’s work in great detail, supporting the information students will have gotten from this chapter and would make an excellent example of a citation from a student writing about the topic.