Chapter 12 – Music

Chapter Summary

Music is an important source of cultural symbolism, and a way to articulate dissent. Sociologically, music can teach us about tastes, subcultures, and the power of subcultural capital. Our attraction to cool new music is not simply dictated by high-powered executives in the music industry. Coolness often emerges from subaltern social classes—those who are economically disadvantaged and/or racially oppressed. Through music, Black Americans have played a pivotal role shaping cultural concepts of cool. In this chapter, the case of hip-hop is used to reflect on dynamics of racism (including prejudice, discrimination, and institutional racism) as well as White privilege, cultural appropriation and color-blind ideology. Musical icons that are “edgy” and critical can be commercialized and turned into a mass-market commodity. At the same time, music can also be thought of as an art form and continues to offer a powerful medium for collective protest to oppression and injustice. In terms of economic sociology, music can teach us about the impact of digital technologies on our consumption practices, and the immense (but contested) power of the music industry.

Further Reading

Guerra, Paula. 2020. “Under-Connected: Youth Subcultures, Resistance and Sociability in the Internet Age.” In Keith Gildart et al., Hebdige and Subculture in the Twenty-First Century. Palgrave MacMillan.

This chapter reviews sociological theories of subcultures and examines the ramifications of digital technologies on subcultural forms and practices. It examines shifting scholarly perspectives on subculture, from the class- and age-based affiliations of early subcultural theories to the fluid and globalized networks of the digital era. While the internet democratizes access and fosters global connections, it also dilutes the physical artifacts and face-to-face interactions central to subcultural identities. The chapter suggests the need to reconceptualize subcultures as dynamic, evolving entities that integrate resistance with the fragmented, networked sociabilities of the digital age. However, subcultural theory continues to offer crucial resources for studying the dynamics of resistance and commodification, as digital spaces simultaneously enable new avenues for the dissemination and neutralization of oppositional culture.

Wang, Yehan. 2024. “Musical Taste Preferences in Chinese Hip‐hop: Between Cultural Openness and the Rejection of Vulgarity.” Sociology Compass 18(1).

This article explores hip-hop’s recent success in China as a product of globalization and the shift toward “omnivorous” class consumption patterns. Fans demonstrate cultural omnivorousness by embracing diverse musical styles and hybridizing global hip-hop influences with traditional Chinese elements. Although these fans express openness toward musical tastes, they simultaneously reject hip-hop songs and artists that use vulgar or violent themes in favor of “authentic” and “serious” content. The author highlights how hip-hop’s adoption by the Chinese middle class is shaped by state censorship, which restricts “immoral” themes, allowing hip-hop to serve as both a marker of cultural capital and a unique fusion of global and local influences.

Wingfield, Adia H., and Melinda Mills. 2012. “Viewing Videos: Class Differences, Black Women, and Interpretations of Black Femininity.” Race, Gender & Class 19(3-4): 348-367.

This article examines how young Black women interpret the representation of Black femininity in rap music videos. The study employed a focus group design in which participants viewed and discussed a selection of rap music videos featuring Black women. Middle-class participants largely rejected the images as unrealistic and demeaning, associating them with a lack of “class,” while working-class participants viewed them as realistic and often framed them as expressions of agency and economic mobility. The study highlights how race, gender, and class intersect to influence audience interpretations of hip-hop.

Quizzes

Test your knowledge with the Chapter 12 quizzes!

Quiz

1. 

Du Bois argued that African Americans have a unique perspective on American society because of their experience with double consciousness, giving them insight into the country's racial inequalities.

TRUE

FALSE

None

2. 

Music has historically been used as a tool of __________, enabling marginalized communities to express dissent against oppression.

Please select your answer resistance commodification

3. 

What sociological concept describes the internal conflict faced by Black Americans in a racist society?

Collective consciousness

Class consciousness

Double consciousness

False consciousness

None

4. 

Which of the following is true of cultural appropriation?

It creates economic opportunities for oppressed groups

It occurs whenever one group borrows from a different culture

It allows privileged groups to profit from the cultural practices of oppressed groups without experiencing their struggles

It promotes cross-cultural understanding and respect

None

5. 

Hip-hop today remains a genre focused only on African American issues, with no significant adaptation by communities and political movements around the world.

FALSE

TRUE

None

6. 

__________ racism refers to the ways in which racial biases are embedded within social settings like schools and the criminal justice system.

Please select your answer individual institutional

7. 

What is the primary goal of textual analysis in sociology?

To interpret the meanings of texts and understand their cultural and social significance

To identify the technical components of cultural production

To predict the commercial success of cultural products

To count how many times specific themes appear in a text

None

8. 

Who was the first sociologist to theorize music as a tool of cultural resistance?

Karl Marx

W.E.B. Du Bois

Emile Durkheim

Max Weber

None

9. 

Which of the following reflects institutional racism in the criminal justice system?

Black people and White people are equally represented in prison populations.

White people are more likely to be arrested than people of color.

Black people are disproportionately targeted by law enforcement and receive harsher sentences than White people for similar crimes.

As individuals, law enforcement officials tend to hold racist views

None

10. 

_______ refers to the status gained by individuals through participation in communities like hip-hop.

Please select your answer subcultural capital cultural capital

11. 

The cultural appropriation of hip-hop by White artists has no economic consequences for Black artists, as both groups benefit equally from the genre’s success.

FALSE

TRUE

None

12. 

According to the chapter, color-blind ideology is often used by White hip-hop fans to justify their participation in the genre without addressing its racial roots.

TRUE

FALSE

None

13. 

Which of the following is not one of the three key sociological ways to think about music?

As a commodity

As an art form

As a biological necessity

As a tool of cultural resistance

None

14. 

Which of the following can be a key effect of color-blind ideology in contemporary society?

It reinforces racial inequalities by denying the relevance of race

It causes people to not see race in everyday life.

It encourages open discussions about race in society

It prevents people from recognizing any form of inequality

None

15. 

Which of the following best defines a subculture?

A group that shares norms, values, and symbols that differ from and often oppose mainstream society

A group that fully embraces mainstream cultural norms

A group that is exclusively defined by its economic status

A group that seeks to imitate the dominant culture’s trends

None

16. 

Which of the following statements reflects Pierre Bourdieu’s view of art?

Art serves primarily as a tool for economic gain.

Art is a form of legitimate culture judged by aesthetic standards

Art is always accessible to everyone, regardless of social status.

Art is purely a craft with practical purposes.

None

17. 

In contemporary societies, high-status individuals exclusively prefer classical music and opera.

TRUE

FALSE

None

18. 

What does it mean to consider music as a commodity?

Corporations do not play a role in how music is made

Music is purely for artistic enjoyment and has little economic value

Music is a product that can be bought, sold, and distributed in the marketplace

Music is a luxury item accessible only to elite groups and has no mass-market appeal

None

19. 

Schools with a higher percentage of White students are more likely to have sufficient resources for teaching and extra-curricular activities. This is an example of:

white political influence

white privilege

class privilege

class resistance

None

20. 

Streaming services distribute profits evenly between artists, producers, and the platforms.

FALSE

TRUE

None

21. 

Subcultures like hip-hop often form in opposition to mainstream society and provide a sense of belonging to their members.

TRUE

FALSE

None

22. 

The "school-to-prison pipeline" refers to policies and practices that disproportionately push students of color out of the education system and into the criminal justice system.

FALSE

TRUE

None

23. 

The music industry can be described as an oligopoly. This means that:

Independent artists and major labels have the same level of influence

A few large corporations dominate the production, distribution, and streaming of music

All artists have equal control over their music rights

Numerous small companies equally compete to produce and distribute music

None

24. 

__________ ideology may be used by White hip-hop fans to justify their participation in the genre while overlooking its political and racial significance.

Please select your answer intersectional color blind

25. 

Imagine you are interested in becoming part of your local punk scene. What would be the best way to acquire subcultural capital within this group?

Wearing mainstream fashion brands

Attending classical music concerts

Listening exclusively to top-40 radio hits

Knowing obscure bands and participating in underground punk shows

None

26. 

The concept of cultural __________ refers to the adoption of elements from one culture by another without proper recognition or respect.

Please select your answer appropriation appreciation

Time’s up

Active Learning – Further Online Resources

Co-opting “cool”:

Watch the Poweraid ad discussed in the chapter, which features Tupac’s music in the background. Can you find other examples of corporations using hip-hop’s “cool” status to sell products? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2HKlKT4ui0Q

Appropriation on TikTok:

Music is not the only form of expression that can be subject to cultural appropriation. Check out this article on the 2021#BlackTikTokStrike, in which Black TikTok creators protested the appropriation of their dances. The striking content creators took issue with the fact that corporations were capitalizing on the viral content generated by Black producers—a contemporary example of how powerful actors appropriate Black culture for profit. Do you think these content creators should be financially compensated for the digital culture they create? https://www.npr.org/2021/07/01/1011899328/black-tiktok-creators-are-on-strike-to-protest-a-lack-of-credit-for-their-work

Protest songs on Spotify:

In the mood for protest? Scan the code below to access a playlist of protest songs, compiled with the help of our students. These historical and contemporary songs protest many social issues including war, racism, colonialism, police brutality, gun violence, environmental degradation, and more. How do these songs reveal social injustices and call for change? Do any of these songs give you a new perspective on an issue, or inspire you to take action?

The evolution of hip-hop: A textual analysis

What major themes are addressed by hip-hop lyrics and how have these changed over time? Textual analysis can help you find out. Go to www.billboard.com/charts/year–end and make a list of the top 50 hip-hop songs from the most recent year, as well as from 10 years earlier. You can find song lyrics from many sites online, such as songlyrics.com or azlyrics.com. Review the lyrics from the earlier year multiple times, making note of the main concerns of the songs, such as love, desire, happiness, protest, conflict, etc. Refine your list of themes and how the themes relate to each other through multiple readings of the lyrics. Be open to finding other themes and to the different ways these themes can be presented, such as happiness through consumption or happiness through relationships. Then repeat this process for the lyrics from the later year. Compare and contrast how the themes have evolved.

Flashcards

Refresh your knowledge of key terms with this chapter’s flashcards.