Chapter 2

Abstract

This chapter surveys the historical development of Western translation theory from Classical antiquity to the present, focusing on the enduring debate between literal (word-for-word) and free (sense-for-sense) translation. Foundational figures such as Cicero, St Jerome, and Dryden shaped early views, often grounded in religious or humanist principles. Bible translation remained a central and controversial issue for over a millennium. By the seventeenth century, more systematic approaches began to emerge, notably Dryden’s triad and Schleiermacher’s emphasis on foreignness. The chapter also addresses the increasing recognition of non-Western translation traditions, especially Chinese and Arabic discourses, including Buddhist sutra translation and the influence of Yán Fù. It highlights a growing body of scholarship and resources that examine translation across cultures, time periods, and languages. Key texts and collections are discussed, and readers are encouraged to explore specialized studies and recent contributions to global translation history, including online resources like the History of Translation network.

Video Introduction

Flashcards

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Quiz

Test your understanding of this chapter with our multiple choice questions.

Research Questions

Modern translation theory tends to criticize the simplicity of the ‘literal vs free’ debate. Why, then, do you think that the vocabulary of that earlier period often continues to be used in reviews of translation, in comments by teachers and examiners, and in writings by literary translators themselves?
Cicero and St Jerome may be said to represent respectively the Classical tradition of creative imitation and the Christian tradition of ‘faithful’ translation of the truth. Read the full versions of their statements and summarize their arguments (e.g. in Robinson 2002/2014, see Further Reading and Exploration). What view of language and communication do they seem to hold? How far do they go beyond the free vs literal opposition with which they are generally associated?
Look at early writing on translation from your own languages and cultures. What are the translation contexts in which they were written? What ‘rules’ of translation are proposed? What does this tell you about their view of language?
Do translators’ prefaces frequently appear in translations in your own country? If they do, what function do they serve, and what kind of language do they use to describe the translation?

The Basic Concepts of Early Translation Theory