{"id":721,"date":"2025-10-21T07:32:33","date_gmt":"2025-10-21T07:32:33","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/?post_type=content&#038;p=721"},"modified":"2025-10-21T10:06:22","modified_gmt":"2025-10-21T10:06:22","slug":"1850-1899","status":"publish","type":"content","link":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/students\/timeline\/1850-1899\/","title":{"rendered":"1850 \u2013 1899: The Victorian Era"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"background-color:#dae9e0;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--60);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--60)\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group alignwide has-global-padding is-content-justification-left is-layout-constrained wp-container-core-group-is-layout-12dd3699 wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\"><div class=\"aioseo-breadcrumbs\"><span class=\"aioseo-breadcrumb\">\n\tHome\n<\/span><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group alignwide is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\"><h1 class=\"alignwide wp-block-post-title has-large-font-size\">1850 \u2013 1899: The Victorian Era<\/h1>\n\n\n<p><strong>Progress, Empire, and Innovation<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The mid-to-late 19th century epitomized human ambition and technological achievement. The Victorian era brought unprecedented scientific discoveries, territorial expansion, and cultural refinement alongside growing social consciousness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Revolutionary Changes:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list check-list\">\n<li>Darwin&#8217;s theory of evolution challenges traditional beliefs<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>American Civil War ends slavery<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Suez Canal opens global trade routes<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Edison&#8217;s inventions illuminate the world<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Women&#8217;s suffrage movements emerge<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>This era balanced remarkable progress with growing awareness of social inequality, setting the stage for the transformative century to follow.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" style=\"padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50)\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group alignwide is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\">\n<p class=\"has-text-align-left\">There are 34 entries in this timeline<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group timeline-container is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-319223d672c507ff35583b6ed17bc446\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1861<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Italian unification<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>March 1861<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-2219aafdbdef27e0b5e39efa7d543b52\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1863<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Beginning of Henry Dunant&#8217;s campaign to establish the Red Cross<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>February 1863 <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-f39e1f3384367c91174912f4d8ac58b8\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1864<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">First Geneva Convention for Victims of War<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>August 1864 <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The 1864 Geneva Convention was an early multilateral treaty attempting to reduce suffering through war by introducing common standards of behaviour.  <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-8e846bad597226e2cff3dd8e1c0fbede\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1871<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">German unification declared at Versailles<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>January 1871<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>German unification resulted from a series of wars undertaken by Prussia in the 1860s, against Denmark in 1864, against Austria in 1866, and finally against France in 1870\u201371.  However, while Austrian anger over the 1866 Seven Weeks&#8217; War soon receded, the 1870\u201371 Franco-Prussian War resulted in long-term French hostility.  French anger arose in part from the annexation of the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine by Germany, but more generally from German assumption of the central role in the Great Power system previously played by France.  Proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors at the Versailles Palace only further humiliated and angered the French, and the resulting Franco-German hostility became a central feature of European international relations after 1871.  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wernerprokla.jpg#mediaviewer\/File:Wernerprokla.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Wernerprokla.jpg\" src=\"http:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/17\/Wernerprokla.jpg\" height=\"145\" width=\"196\"><\/a><br>&#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wernerprokla.jpg#mediaviewer\/File:Wernerprokla.jpg\">Wernerprokla<\/a>&#8221; by <a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anton_von_Werner\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Anton von Werner\">Anton von Werner<\/a> &#8211; Museen Nord \/ Bismarck Museum: <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.museen-sh.de\/ml\/einzBild.php?s=2&amp;t=1&amp;sparte=museen&amp;pid=&amp;page=1&amp;action=vonsuche&amp;suce=&amp;inst=37&amp;museenmitbild=&amp;b=68&amp;nameInst=Bismarck-Museum&amp;r=1\">Picture<\/a>. Licensed under Public Domain via <a href=\"\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/\">Wikimedia Commons<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/francoprussianwar.com\/\">Franco-Russian War<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-9b9b98dd21e49d0e208244f596d17d2e\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1876<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Start of Bulgarian revolt against Ottoman rule<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>April 1876 <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-3965f45cee896a715e042a1ce1ecd2e9\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1877<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Outbreak of Russo-Turkish War<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>April 1877<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Serio-comic_war_map_for_1877.jpg#mediaviewer\/File:Serio-comic_war_map_for_1877.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Serio-comic war map for 1877.jpg\" src=\"http:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/44\/Serio-comic_war_map_for_1877.jpg\" height=\"145\" width=\"185\"><\/a><br>&#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Serio-comic_war_map_for_1877.jpg#mediaviewer\/File:Serio-comic_war_map_for_1877.jpg\">Serio-comic war map for 1877<\/a>&#8221; by Rose, Fred. W. (Frederick W.), artist. &#8211; <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/nla.gov.au\/nla.map-vn6289126\">http:\/\/nla.gov.au\/nla.map-vn6289126<\/a>. Licensed under Public Domain via <a href=\"\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/\">Wikimedia Commons<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-6527363068505edb46a60176c2a618c6\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1878<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Congress of Berlin on Eastern Question<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>July 1878<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>German Chancellor Bismarck acted as &#8220;honest broker&#8221; in resolving the crisis created by the Russo-Turkish War and subsequent Russian victories.  The Congress reorganized the Balkans:  Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania gained independence, Austria-Hungary gained power of administration in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Britain taking Cyprus, Russia obtaining Bessarabia and parts of Armenia, while losing most of the gains made by its satellite Bulgarian state.  Ultimately the Congress preserved the peace, yet led to greater Austro-Russian competition over the Balkans, in turn forcing Austria-Hungary into closer relations with Germany, while Balkan nationalist aspirations remained unquenched. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:SouthEast_Europe_1878.jpg#mediaviewer\/File:SouthEast_Europe_1878.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"SouthEast Europe 1878.jpg\" src=\"http:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/7\/7d\/SouthEast_Europe_1878.jpg\" height=\"145\" width=\"206\"><\/a><br>&#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:SouthEast_Europe_1878.jpg#mediaviewer\/File:SouthEast_Europe_1878.jpg\">SouthEast Europe 1878<\/a>&#8221; by Robert H. Labberton, E. Elaxton and Co. &#8211; Map from &#8220;An Historical Atlas&#8221; by Robert H. Labberton, E. Elaxton and Co., 1884.. Licensed under Public Domain via <a href=\"\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/\">Wikimedia Commons<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-6527363068505edb46a60176c2a618c6\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1878<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Treaty of Berlin forces the Ottoman Empire and is successor states to uphold religious freedom and not to persecute minorities<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>July 1878 <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-4e4aaafdcd9a37ca55432b3131b8a532\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1879<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Austro-German Dual Alliance<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>October 1879<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>As a result of Russian anger over the Congress of Berlin, Austria-Hungary and Germany founded a defensive alliance, which became the cornerstone of the pre-1914 alliance system.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-18d84ad7da31866ae454e9e5c1d4bfd0\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1881<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Anti-Jewish pogroms take place in the Russian Empire<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>April 1881 <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-fa35cd74dfedef94c99535c7f5162e6c\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1882<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Triple Alliance (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>May 1882<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Italy joined the Dual Alliance following French annexation of Tunisia, a territory desired by Italy.  Italy specified the terms would not require its joining a war against Britain.  Italian irredentism against Habsburg territory additionally made Italy an unsteady partner.  <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-fa35cd74dfedef94c99535c7f5162e6c\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1882<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Publication of Leo Pinkser&#8217;s pamphlet Auto-Emancipation<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>January 1882 <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pinsker argued that Jewish people would never be treated as equals in Europe until they had a nation state, shifting from assimilationist goals to separatist.  <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-fa35cd74dfedef94c99535c7f5162e6c\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1882<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Start of first Aliyah to Palestine<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>January 1882 <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-0fa37b67b42b62a5ff1f186928ffa2df\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1884<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Berlin Conference on West Africa<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>1884\u201385<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-d8180120b00163cdd4febe81bdd4cf25\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1887<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Russo-German &#8216;Reinsurance Treaty&#8217;<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>June 1887<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The agreement pledged neutrality in the event of war with a third party, with exceptions for a German attack on France or Russian attack on Austria-Hungary.  The secret agreement exemplified the complex diplomatic web created by Bismarck, one which his successors could not maintain.  <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-65285f384062c77ab4d5e972f9a96309\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1888<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Wilhelm II becomes German Emperor<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>June 1888<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-34b30fce9be1e53636282a067e943b43\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1889<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">First Inter-American conference in Washington DC<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>January 1889<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Blaine conference sought arbitration agreement and greater economic integration as means of improving inter-American relations.  <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-88d842642dd11ae2d9857ad9d4ad6420\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1890<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Bismarck resigns as German Chancellor<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>March 1890<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The elderly Bismarck rapidly fell into conflict with the youthful Wilhelm II, who sought a larger direct role in politics.  After conflicting over legislative policy, Wilhelm II dismissed the aging Chancellor, taking a far more direct role in diplomacy than his predecessors.  <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-e01a596f148d8397fb4bc842d83192e2\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1891<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Franco-Russian political agreement<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>August 1891<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-e01a596f148d8397fb4bc842d83192e2\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1891<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Establishment of the Jewish Colonial Association<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>September 1891 <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-90ff8961d8695917065afaa32b0c2de7\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1892<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Franco-Russian military convention<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>August 1892<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Early alliance obligated the parties to militarily assist one another in case of attack by another member of the Triple Alliance.  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/avalon.law.yale.edu\/19th_century\/frrumil.asp\">Text of the Treaty<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-5fb2104629511accdd64bc0f9159a351\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1894<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Franco-Russian alliance<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>January 1894<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-5fb2104629511accdd64bc0f9159a351\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1894<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Nicholas II becomes Russian Emperor<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>November 1894<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-3290d551cc9c4ae019ac91b49e4a224c\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1896<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Battle of Adowa<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>March 1896<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-3290d551cc9c4ae019ac91b49e4a224c\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1896<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Publication of Theodor Herzl&#8217;s Der Judenstaat<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>February 1896 <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-43aa84d629de4babcbb1d91463a7d878\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1897<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Austro-Russian Balkan Agreement<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>May 1897<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-43aa84d629de4babcbb1d91463a7d878\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1897<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">First Zionist congress held in Basle<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>August 1897 <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-f3978eae0aa977cecd5db07851df88e6\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1898<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">First German Navy Law<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>March 1898<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The First German Navy Law called for the systematic creation of a German battleship fleet.  The fleet was built as part of Admiral Tirpitz&#8217;s &#8216;Risk Theory&#8217; against Britain.  According to the theory, even if the German fleet was not large enough to defeat the British at sea, it would inflict unacceptable levels of damage on the British navy, leaving it unable to protect Britain from its implaccable enemies France and Russia.  The reasoning held that unwilling to accept such a defeat, and unable to resolve its differences with France and Russia, Britain would be forced to accept German interests in the world.  The Navy Laws backfired, spurring British reconciliation with France and Russia.  <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-f3978eae0aa977cecd5db07851df88e6\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1898<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Ivan Bloch publishes War in the Future<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>April 1898<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>His influential work held that modern military technology and industrial organization would render war so lengthy and destructive that society would collapse, rendering war impossible.  <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-f3978eae0aa977cecd5db07851df88e6\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1898<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Fashoda Crisis (Britain and France)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>September 1898<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Anglo-French colonial crisis over control of Sudan nearly led to war between the two powers.  <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-f3978eae0aa977cecd5db07851df88e6\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1898<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Spanish\u2013American War begins<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>April 1898<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Imperial war highlights US rise as a Great Power, taking Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Pacific Island territories from Spain and annexing Hawaii.  <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-1f6e8ad01c8c10b3204e06be2ef5f8d3\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1899<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">First Hague Peace Conference<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>May 1899<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Russian Czar Nicholas II called the conference to limit armaments, codify rules of war, and establish arbitration of international disputes.  High public expectations of disarmament were rapidly deflated by limited results.  <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-1f6e8ad01c8c10b3204e06be2ef5f8d3\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1899<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Outbreak of South African War<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>October 1899<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\" style=\"border-width:1px;background-color:#f1f5f6;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-extra-small-font-size wp-elements-1f6e8ad01c8c10b3204e06be2ef5f8d3\" style=\"color:#494949;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">1899<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0\">Signing of Hague Convention outlining the rules of war.<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>July 1899 <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The two Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907 extended rules of war, and attempted to include all independent nations in rule-making to ceate universal norms.  <\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>The mid-to-late 19th century epitomized human ambition and technological achievement. The Victorian era brought unprecedented scientific discoveries, territorial expansion, and cultural refinement alongside growing social consciousness.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"featured_media":0,"parent":540,"menu_order":0,"template":"wp-custom-template-single-chapter-page","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"tags":[],"class_list":["post-721","content","type-content","status-publish","hentry"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/content\/721","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/content"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/content"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/content\/721\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":788,"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/content\/721\/revisions\/788"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/content\/540"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=721"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=721"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}