{"id":542,"date":"2025-02-17T10:42:32","date_gmt":"2025-02-17T10:42:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/?post_type=content&p=542"},"modified":"2025-02-21T11:51:44","modified_gmt":"2025-02-21T11:51:44","slug":"glossary","status":"publish","type":"content","link":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/students\/glossary\/","title":{"rendered":"Glossary"},"content":{"rendered":"\n
\n
\n
\n\tHome\n<\/span><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n

Glossary<\/h1><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
A<\/summary>\n

A<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Abyssinian War<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

On 3 October 1935, the brutal conquest of Abyssinia by Italian troops launched from neighbouring Italian Eritrea began. It arose from Mussolini\u2019s desire to exercise the martial prowess of his Fascist regime and thereby further his revolution. The war was popular inside Italy as revenge for Italy\u2019s defeat at Adowa in 1896. Emperor Haile Selassie appealed to the League of Nations, but his small kingdom was abandoned to its fate. The war ended on 5 May 1936.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Afrikaners<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The white population in South Africa who are of Dutch descent, also known as Boers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Aliyah (Hebrew: Ascent)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The wave of Jewish emigration to Palestine and, later, to Israel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Alliance for Progress<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The American assistance programme for Latin America began in 1961, which called for an annual increase of 2.5 per cent in per capita income, the establishment of democratic governments, more equitable income distribution, land reform, and economic and social planning. Latin American countries (excluding Cuba) pledged $80 billion over ten years, while the United States pledged $20 billion. After a decade of mixed results, the Alliance was disbanded in 1973.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

al-Qaeda (Arabic: Base)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Islamist umbrella organization established by Osama Bin Laden, drawing upon the network of international jihadists<\/em> established during the Afghan War to support the mujahedeen<\/em>. Founded as early as 1988, al-Qaeda emerged into the public eye in 1990.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Anschluss<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The political union of Germany and Austria. Anschluss was specifically prohibited under the Versailles Treaty, but was carried out by Hitler in March 1938 without any resistance from the victors of the First World War.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Treaty An agreement between the United States and the USSR signed on 26 May 1972, limiting the number of ABM deployment areas, launchers and interceptors. The United States withdrew from the treaty in 2002.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

anti-Semitism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A word which appeared in Europe around 1860. With it, the attack on Jews was based no longer on grounds of creed but on those of race. Its manifestations include pogroms in nineteenth-century Eastern Europe and the systematic murder of an estimated six million Jews by Nazi Germany between 1939 and 1945.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

apartheid<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Afrikaans word for racial segregation. Between 1948 and 1990 \u2018apartheid\u2019 was the ideology of the Nationalist Party in South Africa.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

appeasement<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A foreign policy designed to remove the sources of conflict in international affairs through negotiation. Since the outbreak of the Second World War, the word has taken on the pejorative meaning of the spineless and fruitless pursuit of peace through concessions to aggressors. In the 1930s, most British and French officials saw appeasement as a twin-track policy designed to remove the causes of conflict with Germany and Italy, while at the same time allowing for the build-up of sufficient military and financial power to bargain with the dictators from a position of strength.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Arab nationalism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The belief that all Arabic-speakers form a nation that should be independent and united.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Arab Revolt<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Peasant uprising in Palestine between 1936 and 1939 characterized by strikes and civil disobedience during the first year and violence against the British and Zionists during the subsequent two years.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Article 9<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An article in the Japanese constitution of 1947 which bars the country from going to war and possessing armed forces. Later interpreted to mean that Japan still had the right to self-defence and could maintain armed forces designed with that purpose in mind.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Organization founded in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand to provide a forum for regional economic co-operation. From 1979 it took on more of a political and security role. Membership increased with the accession of Brunei in 1984, Vietnam in 1995, Burma in 1997 and Cambodia in 1999.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Atlantic Charter<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A document signed by Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill in August 1941 which committed the United States and Britain to support democracy, self-determination and the liberalization of international trade.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

autarky<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A policy that aims at achieving national economic self-sufficiency. It is commonly associated with the economic programmes espoused by Germany, Italy and Japan in the 1930s and 1940s.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Axis<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A term coined originally by Mussolini in November 1936 to describe the relationship between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. The German\u2013Italian Axis was reinforced by the so-called Pact of Steel signed by Rome and Berlin in May 1939. More broadly speaking, the term is often used (as in Chapter 8 of this book) to refer to the relationship between Germany, Italy and Japan. These three Powers were formally linked by the German\u2013Japanese Anti-Comintern Pact of November 1936, which Italy signed one year later, and the Tripartite Pact of September 1940.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

B<\/summary>\n

B<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Bandung Afro-Asian Conference<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The conference of Asian and African states held in Bandung in Indonesia in 1955. It is commonly seen as the first move towards the establishment of a Third World lobby in international politics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ba\u2019th<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

(Arabic: Renaissance)<\/strong> The name given to the pan-Arab socialist party founded by Michel Aflaq and Salah Bitar in 1947. Its first congress was held in Damascus. It subsequently spread to Lebanon, Jordan and Iraq and eventually resulted in the establishment of two rival Ba\u2019thist regimes, one in Syria since 1963 and one in Iraq 1968\u20132003.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bay of Pigs<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The site on 17 April 1961 of an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles opposed to the Castro regime. It had the support of the American government and the CIA was heavily involved in its planning. By 20 April most exiles were either killed or captured. The failed invasion was the first major foreign policy act of the Kennedy administration and provoked anti-American demonstrations in Latin America and Europe and further embittered American\u2013Cuban relations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Black September<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The confrontation between the Jordanian army and Palestinian guerrillas in Jordan in September 1970, as a result of which the PLO was expelled from Jordan and relocated its headquarters to Beirut, Lebanon.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bolsheviks<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Originally in 1903 a faction led by Lenin within the Russian Social Democratic Party, over time the Bolsheviks became a separate party and led the October 1917 revolution in Russia. After this \u2018Bolsheviks\u2019 was used as a shorthand to refer to the Soviet government and communists in general.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bretton Woods<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The site of an inter-Allied conference held in 1944 to discuss the post-war international economic order. The conference led to the establishment of the IMF and the World Bank. In the post-war era the links between these two institutions, the establishment of GATT and the convertibility of the dollar into gold were known as the Bretton Woods system. After the dollar\u2019s devaluation in 1971 the world moved to a system of floating exchange rates.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Brezhnev Doctrine<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The \u2018doctrine\u2019 expounded by Leonid Brezhnev in November 1968 affirming the right of the Soviet Union to intervene in the affairs of communist countries in order to protect communism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

BRICS<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A grouping of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa formed in 2010 in part as a counterweight to the G7. The group holds an annual summit and has established its own bank for international development. Its members have been notably muted in regard to criticizing Russia over its invasion of Ukraine. By August 2023 forty countries had expressed an interest in joining the group, and Saudi Arabia, Iran, Ethiopia, Egypt, Argentina and the United Arab Emirates are set to do so in early 2024.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

C<\/summary>\n

C<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Caliphate<\/strong>                      <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The office of the successor to the Prophet Muhammad in his political and social functions. The Caliphate was abolished by the Turkish president Mustafa Kemal Atat\u00fcrk in 1924 after the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of the Turkish Republic.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

climate change (or global warming)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The unintended change of the world\u2019s climate caused by the warming of the global atmosphere through human activity. The warming of the atmosphere occurs when the sun\u2019s solar radiation, which is reflected back off the surface of the earth, is trapped at atmospheric levels, due to the build-up of CO2 and other greenhouse gases, rather than being emitted back into space.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

collective security<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The principle of maintaining peace between states by mobilizing international opinion to condemn aggression. It is commonly seen as one of the chief purposes of international organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Comecon<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, a Soviet-dominated economic organization founded in 1949 to co-ordinate economic strategy and trade within the communist world.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Cominform<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Communist Information Bureau which was established in 1947 and dissolved in 1956. Dominated by the USSR, the Cominform attempted to re-establish the links between the European communist parties that had lapsed since the dissolution of the Comintern. The major event in the Cominform\u2019s history was when it expelled Yugoslavia in 1948.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Comintern <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Communist or Third International founded in Moscow in 1919 as an organization to direct and support the activities of communist parties outside Russia. It was abolished in 1943 in a short-lived effort by Stalin to reassure Britain and the United States that the Soviet Union no longer sought to export Marxism-Leninism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Commonwealth<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An organization of independent self-governing states linked by their common ties to the former British Empire.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Concert of Europe<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The nineteenth-century European system of regulation of international affairs by the Great Powers. Although much of the historical literature argues that the system was successful in keeping the general peace of Europe because it was based on a \u2018balance of power\u2019, more recent work has stressed the importance of shared rules of conduct, values, goals and diplomatic practices in relations between the Great Powers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An agreement signed in Helsinki, Finland, in 1975, by 35 countries including the United States and the Soviet Union, which promoted human rights as well as co-operation in economic, social and cultural progress. It was succeeded in the 1990s by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, which has 55 members, including all European nations, all former republics of the Soviet Union, the United States and Canada.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Congo Crisis<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The civil war that took place in the Congo (the former Belgian Congo) from 1960 to 1963. The crisis was caused largely by the attempt of the copper-rich province of Katanga to secede from the Congo. The secession was defeated eventually by a UN force, but in the process there were scares that the dilatory UN response would lead the Congolese government to turn to the Soviet Union for support.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Congress<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Shorthand for the Indian National Congress, a nationalist party first formed in India in 1885. Congress played the most important role in bringing about Indian independence in 1947 and since then has been one of the major political parties in Indian politics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Congress of Vienna (1814\u201315)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The European conference of Great Power foreign ministers and heads of state that settled the peace after the Napoleonic Wars.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

containment<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The term coined by George Kennan for the American, and broadly Western, policy towards the Soviet Union (and communism in general). The overall idea was to contain the USSR (that is, keep it within its current borders) with the hope that internal division, failure or political evolution might end the perceived threat from what was considered a chronically expansionist force.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Council of Europe<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An international organization founded in London in May 1949 to facilitate co-operation in various areas between most European states. The assembly of the Council of Europe elects the judges of the European Court of Human Rights. The Council\u2019s fundamental role is to maintain pluralist liberal democracy and economic stability in Europe as well as safeguarding the continent\u2019s political and cultural heritage. To achieve this end member states have endorsed the preservation of individual human rights as vital.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Cultural Revolution<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The movement initiated by Mao in 1966 to rid the CCP of \u2018revisionists\u2019 whom he accused of seeking to introduce the type of state capitalism that existed in the Soviet Union. The Cultural Revolution was at its height between 1966 and 1969, but did not end officially until Mao\u2019s death in 1976.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

D<\/summary>\n

D<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Danzig, Free City of (Polish: Gdansk)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A historically and commercially important port city on the Baltic Sea. In 1919 the Paris peacemakers made Danzig politically independent as a \u2018free city\u2019 under the League of Nations in order to give the new state of Poland free access to the sea. However, the vast majority of the city\u2019s inhabitants were Germans. The return of Danzig to German sovereignty was thus a key issue for German nationalists between the wars. Hitler exploited the Danzig question as a pretext for his attack on Poland in 1939.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

decolonization<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The process whereby an imperial power gives up its formal authority over its colonies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Democratic People\u2019s Republic of Korea (DPRK)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The official name of North Korea. The DPRK came into existence in 1948 under the leadership of Kim Il-Sung.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The official name of communist Vietnam; the DRV was initially proclaimed by Ho Chi Minh in 1945. Between 1954 and 1975 it comprised only the northern part of Vietnam (North Vietnam).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

de-Stalinization<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The policy, pursued in most communist states and among most communist groups after 1956, of eradicating the memory or influence of Stalin and Stalinism. It was initiated by the Soviet Union under the guidance of Nikita Khrushchev.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

d\u00e9tente<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A term meaning the reduction of tensions between states. It is often used to refer to the superpower diplomacy that took place between the inauguration of Richard Nixon as the American president in 1969 and the Senate\u2019s refusal to ratify SALT II in 1980.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

developmental state<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A term coined by the political scientist Chalmers Johnson to refer to a state which plays a direct strategic role in planning the development of a capitalist economy. It was first used in relation to Japan, but subsequently utilized more broadly to refer to South Korea, Taiwan and the developing countries in South-East Asia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Dominion<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A completely self-governing colony which is freely associated with the mother country. Within the British Empire, the Dominions were Australia, Canada, the Irish Free State (1922\u201349), New Zealand and South Africa.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The statistical tool used to measure the performance of the New York Stock Exchange.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

E<\/summary>\n

E<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Entente Cordiale<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A phrase coined to describe the Anglo-French rapprochement that took place in 1904. Subsequently used as a short-hand for the Anglo- French relationship in the twentieth century.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

ethnic cleansing<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A process in which one ethnic group systematically ensures its own complete control over territory by enforcing the ejection (or murder) of other ethnic groups. Although the practice dates back to the late-nineteenth century in Europe, the term first came to prominence in the wars within the former Yugoslavia in the 1990s.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Established by the Treaty of Paris (1952) and also known as the Schuman Plan, after the French foreign minister, Robert Schuman, who proposed it in 1950. The member nations of the ECSC \u2013 Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany \u2013 pledged to pool their coal and steel resources by providing a unified market, lifting restrictions on imports and exports, and creating a unified labour market.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

European Community (EC)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Formed in 1967 with the fusion of the European Economic Community (EEC, founded in 1957), the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM, also founded in 1957) and the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC, founded in 1952). The EC contained many of the functions of the European Union (EU, founded in 1992). Unlike the later EU, the EC consisted primarily of economic agreements between member states.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

European Economic Community (EEC)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Established by the Treaty of Rome of 1957, the EEC became effective on 1 January 1958. Its initial members were Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany (now Germany); it was known informally as the Common Market. The EEC\u2019s aim was the eventual economic union of its member nations, ultimately leading to political union. It changed its name to the European Union in 1992.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

European Union (EU)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A political and economic community of nations formed in 1992 in Maastricht by the signing of the Treaty on European Union (TEU). In addition to the agreements of the European Community, the EU incorporated two inter-governmental \u2013 or supra-national \u2013 \u2018pillars\u2019 that tie the member states of the EU together: one dealing with common foreign and security policy, and the other with legal affairs. The number of member states of the EU has expanded from 12 in 1992 to 28 in 2013.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

F<\/summary>\n

F<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Fatah<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A Palestinian guerrilla organization founded in 1957 in Kuwait by, among others, Yasser Arafat. It became the core of the PLO.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

fedayeen (Arabic: guerrillas; suicide squads)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Originally associated with the Ismaili \u2018Assassins\u2019 in medieval history. After 1948 the term was used to describe Palestinian guerrilla groups.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Federal Republic of Germany (FRG)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The German state created in 1949 out of the former American, British and French occupation zones. It was also known as West Germany. In 1990 the GDR merged into the FDR, thus ending the post-war partition of Germany.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Fidelistas<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The name used for the Cuban revolutionaries under Fidel Castro\u2019s leadership. After a long guerrilla campaign the Fidelistas eventually toppled the Batista regime on 1 January 1959.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Final Solution (Endl\u00f6sung<\/em>)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Nazi euphemism for the mass murder of European Jews.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Fourteen Points<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A speech made by the American president Woodrow Wilson on 8 January 1918 in which he set out his vision of the post-war world. It included references to open diplomacy, self-determination and a post-war international organization.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Free French Forces<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

General Charles de Gaulle commanded an armoured division in the battle of France and then, briefly, held a junior post in Paul Reynaud\u2019s cabinet on the eve of France\u2019s defeat. In June 1940, in radio broadcasts from London, he called upon French people everywhere to join him in the struggle to free France from the Nazi occupation and, later, Marshal P\u00e9tain\u2019s Vichy regime. At first, the general\u2019s calls went largely unanswered. His abrasive, overbearing personality and his lack of diplomatic finesse ensured that his relationship with Roosevelt and Churchill was always rocky at best. By 1943, however, he had become the undisputed leader of the Free French movement, whose growing volunteer forces participated in Allied military operations in North Africa and the Middle East. In 1944 Free French Forces triumphantly participated in the liberation of France. The Allies recognized his administration as the French provisional government in October 1944, and de Gaulle, a national hero, was elected president in November 1945. He resigned shortly thereafter when the National Assembly refused to grant him American-style executive powers. He again served his country as president from 1958 to 1969.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

G<\/summary>\n

G<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Gang of Four<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The radical group centred upon Mao\u2019s wife, Jiang Qing, that helped to initiate and perpetuate the Cultural Revolution. They were purged in 1976 following Mao\u2019s death, put on trial for treason and later executed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An international agreement arising out of the Bretton Woods conference covering tariff levels and codes of conduct for international trade. The progressive lowering of tariffs took place in a succession of negotiating rounds. In 1995 it passed its work on to the World Trade Organization (WTO).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Geneva Accords (July 1954)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The international agreement that provided for the withdrawal of the French and Viet Minh to either side of the 17th parallel pending reunification elections in 1956, and for the independence of Laos and Cambodia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Geneva disarmament talks<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Article 8 of the Covenant of the League of Nations committed its signatories to the lowest level of armament consistent with national security and the fulfilment of international obligations. It also called for a Preparatory Commission to meet to draft a disarmament convention. The Preparatory Commission did not meet until 1926, and the disarmament talks did not begin at Geneva until 1932. Britain and France differed markedly over how to proceed, while the Weimar government refused to accept anything short of equality under the new convention. With Hitler\u2019s chancellorship, the chances for general disarmament evaporated. The Geneva disarmament talks were formally suspended in June 1934.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

genocide<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A word coined in 1943 by the international lawyer Raphael Lemkin who combined the Greek word \u2018genos\u2019 (race or tribe) with the Latin word \u2018cide\u2019 (to kill). Lemkin drafted the UN Convention on Genocide in December 1948, which defined it as \u2018acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

German Democratic Republic (GDR)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The German state created in 1949 out of the former Soviet occupation zone. It was also known as East Germany. The GDR more or less collapsed in 1989\u201390 and was merged into the FRG in 1990, thus ending the post-war partition of Germany.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

glasnost (Russian: openness)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Initiated in 1985 by Gorbachev, glasnost<\/em> refers to the public policy within the Soviet Union of openly and frankly discussing economic and political realities.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

globalization<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The cultural, social and economic changes caused by the growth of international trade, the rapid transfer of investment capital and the development of high-speed global communications.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u2018Good Neighbor\u2019 policy<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A diplomatic policy introduced in 1933 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, which was designed to encourage friendly relations and mutual defence among the nations of the Western Hemisphere after decades of American military interventionism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Great Leap Forward<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The movement initiated by the CCP in 1958 to achieve rapid modernization in China through the construction of communes and the utilization of the masses for large-scale infrastructure projects.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Great Powers<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Traditionally those states that were held capable of shared responsibility for the management of the international order by virtue of their military and economic influence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Green Revolution<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An expression referring to the way in which the scientific development of high-yield grains and improved synthetic fertilizers and pesticides generated an expansion of agricultural production especially in the Third World. It was coined in 1968 by William Gaud, the head of the USAID.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Group of 7 (G-7)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Group of 7 is the organization of the seven most advanced capitalist economies \u2013 the United States, Japan, Canada, West Germany, France, Italy and Britain \u2013 founded in 1976. The G-7 held and continues to hold annual summit meetings where the leaders of these countries discuss economic and political issues.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Group of 77 (G-77)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An organization, originally of 77 nations, that has lobbied the United Nations for the need to equalize the terms of trade between the developed and developing worlds and to ease access to international aid from institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A resolution passed by the US Congress in August 1964 following alleged DRV attacks on American ships in the Gulf of Tonkin, which authorized the president to employ all necessary measures to repel attacks against American forces and to take all steps necessary for the defence of American allies in South-East Asia. Presidents Johnson and Richard M. Nixon used it to justify military action in South-East Asia. The measure was repealed by Congress in 1970.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Guomindang (GMD)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Chinese Nationalist party founded in 1913 by Sun Yatsen. Under the control of Jiang Jieshi, it came to power in China in 1928 and initiated a modernization programme before leading the country into war against Japan in 1937. It lost control over mainland China in 1949 as a result of the communist victory in the civil war. From 1949 it controlled Taiwan, overseeing the island\u2019s \u2018economic miracle\u2019, until its electoral defeat in 2000.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

H<\/summary>\n

H<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

hadith<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The traditions collected by witnesses to the Prophet Muhammad\u2019s life at Medina. An estimated 7,000 were handed down through oral traditions, collected, edited and recorded by Bukhari (d. 807) and Muslim (d. 875).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Haganah (Hebrew: Defence)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Jewish underground organization established in 1920 following Arab riots and the British failure to defend the Jews. It became the core of the IDF in 1948.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hague Conferences (1899 and 1907)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Two international gatherings, proposed by Tsar Nicholas II and President Theodore Roosevelt respectively, which led to the signing of a number of international conventions on the rules of war and the establishment of a Permanent Court of Arbitration. The Geneva Protocol of 1925 that banned the use of chemical weapons and the Geneva Conventions of 1929 and 1949 that established laws for the treatment of prisoners of war and non-combatants in international and civil conflicts are extensions of the original Hague treaties.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hamas<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The acronym for Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya<\/em> (Islamic Resistance Movement). It emerged during the first intifada<\/em> in 1987 in the Gaza Strip.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hashemites<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The family of the Sharifs of Mecca who trace their descent to the Prophet Muhammad.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Helsinki Accords<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The agreements that arose from the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in 1975. Often used as a shorthand to refer to the human rights elements in the treaty which subsequently encouraged dissident activity within the Soviet bloc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hizb\u2019allah (Arabic: Party of God)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Lebanese Shi\u2019a Islamist group which emerged in reaction to the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon. Its primary aim until the Israeli withdrawal in May 2000 was the liberation of southern Lebanon.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ho Chi Minh trail<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A network of jungle paths from North Vietnam through Laos and Cambodia into South Vietnam. Used as a military route by North Vietnam to send supplies and troops to the South.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Holocaust<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The systematic mass murder of six million European Jews by the Nazis between 1939 and 1945.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

human rights<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The rights and fundamental freedoms to which every human being is entitled. The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) spells out most of the main rights that must be protected but it is not binding in international law. The European Convention on Human Rights (1953) established the European Court of Human Rights to hear individual complaints about violations of the Convention. Though the court\u2019s rulings are non-binding, many European states have incorporated the convention into their national laws.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

humanitarian intervention<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The threat or use of force by one or more states against another to safeguard human life or to protect human rights. From the mid-sixteenth century onwards, in international law sovereign states have been inviolate within their territories, but for advocates of humanitarian interventions, such as NATO\u2019s campaign in Libya in 2011, the duty to protect life and human rights overrides state sovereignty.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

I<\/summary>\n

I<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

import substitution<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The process whereby a state attempts to achieve economic growth by raising protective tariffs to keep out imports and replacing them with indigenously produced goods.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

indirect rule<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The system whereby a colonial power delegates limited powers to indigenous institutions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Inter-American Development Bank<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Organized in 1959 to foster the economic development of the Western Hemisphere. It is mainly funded by the United States.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

inter-continental ballistic missile (ICBM)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Any supersonic missile that has a range of at least 6,500 kilometres and follows a ballistic trajectory after launching. The Soviet\u2013American SALT I Agreements limited the number of ICBMs that each side could have.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

international law<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The body of law (treaties, conventions and custom) that regulates the relationship between sovereign states and their rights and duties towards each other as well as non-state actors (individuals and organizations such as companies) acting in the international sphere.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

intifada (Arabic: shaking off )<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Name given to the Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation which began on 9 December 1987 and lasted until the signing of the 1993 Oslo Accords between the PLO and Israel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Irish Republican Army (IRA)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Militant Irish nationalist organization formed in 1919 as the military wing of Sinn Fein. The IRA\u2019s original aim was to establish an Irish Socialist Republic in all of Ireland. In 1969 the IRA split into the Official and Provisional IRA. The Provisionals or Provos carried out a militant campaign in Northern Ireland in order to expel the British. In 1994 the IRA called a cease-fire and Sinn Fein entered into negotiations that resulted in the 1998 Belfast Agreement which provided for power-sharing in Northern Ireland.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

isolationism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The policy or doctrine of isolating one\u2019s country by avoiding foreign entanglements and responsibilities. Popular in the United States during the inter-war years.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

J<\/summary>\n

J<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Jemaah Islamiyya (JI) (Arabic: Islamic Community)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

South-East Asian Islamist organization established by Indonesians Abdullah Sunkar and Abu Bakar Ba\u2019ashir in 1993. JI seeks to establish a South-East Asian Islamic state encompassing Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, southern Thailand and the southern Philippines through militant means.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

jihad<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Struggle in the way of God. A fundamental tenet of Islam consisting of the Greater jihad<\/em> which is above all a personal struggle to be a better Muslim and the Lesser jihad<\/em> which is physical fighting.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

K<\/summary>\n

K<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Kashmir<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Province in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. Although mainly Muslim in population, in 1947 its Hindu ruler declared his allegiance to India. Pakistan reacted by seizing control of some of the province. Divided ever since by what is known as the Line of Control, Kashmir has been a perpetual sore in Indo-Pakistani relations. Terrorist campaigns by Islamic militants in the 1990s led the two countries to the brink of war on a number of occasions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kellogg\u2013Briand Pact<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Or more formally the \u2018International Treaty for the Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy\u2019, 27 August 1928. It arose from a suggestion by the French prime minister, Aristide Briand, to the US secretary of state, Frank Kellogg, that the two states should agree to renounce war. At Kellogg\u2019s suggestion, other states were invited to join France and the United States in signing an agreement. In total, 65 did so. Manifestly a failure, the pact is often ridiculed as an empty gesture indicative of the idealistic internationalism of the inter-war years. In fact, Briand saw the treaty as a way to obtain some sort of moral American commitment to the preservation of the status quo.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Khalifat Movement<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The protest movement that swept through the Islamic world from 1919 to 1923 in opposition to the harsh treatment meted out by the Christian powers to the Ottoman sultan, who as Caliph was one of the protectors of the faith.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Khmer Rouge<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Western name for the communist movement, led by Pol Pot, which came to power in Cambodia in 1975. The new government carried out a radical political programme that led to 1.5 million deaths. In 1979 it was overthrown by Vietnam, but continued to fight a guerrilla war campaign into the 1990s.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

L<\/summary>\n

L<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

League Against Imperialism (LAI)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A Comintern-sponsored organization formed as a result of the Brussels Congress Against Colonial Oppression in February 1927. Although the organization had little practical effect in terms of undermining the Western colonial empires, it brought together nationalist figures such as Jawaharlal Nehru (India), Mohammad Hatta (Indonesia), Messali Hadj (Algeria) and Muhammad Hafiz Ramadan Pasha (Egypt) and led them to see their respective causes as part of a global struggle against imperialism. It arguably influenced the development of a sense of Third World identity after 1945 and inspired the creation of AAPSO.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

League of Nations<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An international organization established in 1919 by the peace treaties that ended the First World War. Its purpose was to promote international peace through collective security and to organize conferences on economic and disarmament issues. It was formally dissolved in 1946.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Lend-Lease<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

With the Lend-Lease Act of March 1941, the US Congress empowered the president to lease or lend arms and supplies to any foreign government whose defence the administration considered essential to US national security. The programme, originally intended to rescue Britain, was eventually extended to more than 38 states fighting the Tripartite Pact Powers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Limited Test Ban Treaty<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An agreement signed by Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States in 1963, committing nations to halt atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons; by the end of 1963, 96 additional nations had signed the treaty.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Locarno treaties<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The series of treaties concluded at Locarno in Switzerland in October 1925. The most important was the Rhineland Pact, signed by France, Germany and Belgium and guaranteed by Britain and Italy, which affirmed the inviolability of the Franco-German and Belgo-German borders and the demilitarization of the Rhineland. In addition, Germany signed arbitration treaties with France, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

M<\/summary>\n

M<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

McCarthyism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A general term for the practice in the United States of making accusations of pro-communist activity, in many instances unsupported by proof or based on slight, doubtful or irrelevant evidence. The term is derived from its most notorious practitioner, Republican Senator Joseph R. McCarthy of Wisconsin (1909\u201357).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Manchuria<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The three north-eastern provinces of China and home of the Manchu people. From 1932 to 1945, with the addition of Jehol province, it became the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

mandates<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The colonial territories of Germany and the Ottoman Empire that were entrusted to Britain, France, Japan, Australia and South Africa under the supervision of a League of Nations Commission.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Marshall Plan<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Officially known as the European Recovery Programme (ERP). Initiated by American Secretary of State George C. Marshall\u2019s 5 June 1947 speech and administered by the Economic Co-operation Administration (ECA). Under the ERP the participating countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and West Germany) received more than $12 billion between 1948 and 1951.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

massive retaliation<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A strategy of military counter-attack adopted in the United States during the Eisenhower administration, whereby the United States threatened to react to any type of military offensive by the Soviets or the Chinese with the use of nuclear weapons. The strategy began to lose its credibility as the Soviets developed a substantial nuclear capability in the late 1950s.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Mein Kampf (German: My Struggle)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A semi-autobiographical book dictated by Adolf Hitler to his chauffeur and his personal secretary, Rudolf Hess, while he was serving a prison sentence for his part in the failed Munich beer hall putsch of 9 November 1923. It was published in 1925\u201326 in two volumes. Sales did not reach the hundreds of thousands until Hitler took power in 1933. It is a myth that the book was unread or ignored by foreign statesmen. It contained no detailed timetable for aggression; instead, Mein Kampf<\/em> is a rambling exploration of Hitler\u2019s basic political and racial views.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Mercosur<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Or the Southern Cone Common Market. A Latin American trade organization established in 1991 to increase economic co-operation in the eastern part of South America. Full members include Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Bolivia and Chile are associate members. Mercosur\u2019s goals include the gradual elimination of tariffs between member states and harmonization of external duties.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Japanese government ministry most closely associated with directing Japan\u2019s economic growth.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

minority rights<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

provide protection for groups that are inferior in numbers to the majority in a state and who are at risk of discrimination, persecution, or repression due to cultural, ethnic, racial, religious, linguistic or social differences. The Paris Peace settlement of 1919 set out legal measures to protect minorities in central and Eastern Europe under the supervision of the League of Nations. However, the centrality of minority rights in international law in the inter-war years gave way to individual human rights with the conclusion of the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

missile defence programme<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Or missile defence initiative, or national missile defence. A futuristic plan to provide the United States (and possibly other countries) with a missile shield against potential attacks.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u2018modernization\u2019 theory<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The idea that rapid economic development is achieved by a state going through a \u2018take-off \u2019 stage in which an entrepreneurial class and high investment in economic growth play a crucial part. The theory is closely associated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) economist Walt Rostow, who served in both the Kennedy and Johnson administrations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Monroe Doctrine<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The doctrine declared by President James Monroe in 1823 in which he announced that the United States would not tolerate intervention by the European Powers in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

mufti<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A government-appointed Muslim religious official who pronounces usually on spiritual and social matters. The exception is the mufti<\/em> of Jerusalem who also played a political role.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

mujahedeen (Arabic: those who struggle in the way of God)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Term used for the Muslim guerrillas who fought against the Soviets in Afghanistan in 1979\u201389.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicle (MIRV)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A re-entry vehicle that breaks up into several nuclear warheads, each capable of reaching a different target. Not included in the SALT I agreements of 1972.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

mutually assured destruction (MAD)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An American doctrine of reciprocal deterrence resting on the United States and Soviet Union each being able to inflict unacceptable damage on the other in retaliation for a nuclear attack.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

N<\/summary>\n

N<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

naqba (Arabic: disaster)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Term for the Palestinian experience in the 1947\u201349 Arab\u2013Israeli war, alluding to the Arab defeat and the Palestinian refugee situation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

National Liberation Front (NLF)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Established in 1960 as an umbrella organization for those opposing the rule of President Ngo Dinh Diem in South Vietnam. Supported by North Vietnam, the NLF played an important role in the Vietnam War throughout the 1960s.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Nazi New Order<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The German propaganda euphemism for the racial transformation and economic reordering of Europe to conform with the barbaric principles and criminal practices of German national socialism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Nazis (or Nazi Party)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The abbreviation for the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei<\/em> (NSDAP)). It was founded in October 1918 as the German Workers Party by the German politician Anton Drexler to oppose both capitalism and Marxism. It took on its more notorious title in February 1920. One year later Hitler became the Nazi Party F\u00fchrer (German: leader).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

neo-colonialism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The process whereby a colonial power grants juridical independence to a colony, but nevertheless maintains de facto political and economic control.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

neutralism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The policy whereby a state publicly dissociates itself from becoming involved in Great Power conflicts. The first major advocate of the policy was Jawaharlal Nehru on behalf of post-independence India.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

New Democracy<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The reformulation of Marxism-Leninism by Mao in the late 1930s and early 1940s in which he \u2018sinified\u2019 communism and argued for the need for an alliance of classes, including both the proletariat and the peasantry, to bring about socialism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

New International Economic Order (NIEO)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The proposal put forward by the Non-Aligned Movement and adopted by the UN in 1974 for major changes to be made to the international trading and financial order.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Nixon Doctrine<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A statement made by President Richard Nixon in 1969 while visiting Guam in which he announced the policy of the Vietnamization of the war in Indochina and that the US would no longer commit ground troops to defend its allies in Asia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Non-Aligned Movement<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The organization founded in 1961 by a number of neutral states which called for a lowering of Cold War tensions and for greater attention to be paid to underdevelopment and to the eradication of imperialism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

non-alignment<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A state policy of avoiding involvement in \u2018Great Power conflicts\u2019, most notably the Cold War. It was first espoused by India on its becoming independent in 1947.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

non-governmental organizations (NGOs)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Organizations that exist independently from governments and states. They can operate on a national or transnational basis and often focus on lobbying and action in a specific field of activity. The range of NGOs is enormous, with some having a low public profile and acting in close co-operation with governments, while others focus on the mobilization of public opinion. Prominent examples include Amnesty International and Greenpeace.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A 1992 accord between Canada, Mexico and the United States establishing a free-trade zone in North America from 1 January 1994. NAFTA immediately lifted tariffs on the majority of goods produced by the signatory nations. It also calls for the gradual elimination of barriers to cross-border investment and to the movement of goods and services between the three countries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Established by the North Atlantic Treaty (4 April 1949) signed by Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and the United States. Greece and Turkey entered the alliance in 1952 and the Federal Republic of Germany in 1955. Spain became a full member in 1982. In 1999 the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland joined in the first post-Cold War expansion, increasing the membership to 19 countries. In 2020 North Macedonia joined as the 30th<\/sup> member state; Finland and Sweden applied for membership in 2022.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Proposed by the USSR and the United States in 1968, and subsequently approved by the UNGA, the treaty prohibits the proliferation of nuclear weaponry to \u2018new\u2019 countries. It has been ratified by more than 180 nations but has not prevented some states from either openly or secretly acquiring a nuclear weapons capability.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

O<\/summary>\n

O<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

open door<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The maintenance in a certain territory of equal commercial and industrial rights for the nationals of all countries. As a specific policy, it was first advanced by the United States in the late-nineteenth century as a way of safeguarding American economic interests in China.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Organization of African Unity (OAU)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The organization of African states founded in Addis Ababa in 1963. It has upheld the territorial status quo in Africa and acted in the 1960s and 1970s as an important forum for attacks on colonialism. At the July 2002 Durban Summit the OAU was formally disbanded and became the African Union (AU).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Organization of American States (OAS)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An organization formed in 1948 for the purpose of co-ordinated action in economic, political and military matters. Its members include all countries in the Western Hemisphere.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The organization founded in 1960 to represent the interests of the leading oil-producing states in the Third World.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ostpolitik<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The West German policy towards the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe in the 1960s and 1970s, which aimed at reducing tensions with the ultimate hope of negotiating the peaceful unification of Germany.overseas <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Chinese<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The descendants of the Chinese who emigrated to South-East Asia in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. They have tended to act as a merchant class and as such have stirred up a good deal of resentment among the indigenous people who envy their wealth and doubt their loyalty to their adopted countries.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

P<\/summary>\n

P<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Pacific War<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The phrase usually used to refer to the Allied war against Japan from 1941 to 1945.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Founded by Nasser in 1964, it comprises the Palestine National Council as its supreme body, the Palestine Executive Committee for everyday affairs and the Palestine Liberation Army. It was chaired initially by Ahmad Shuqairy and after the 1967 war by Yasser Arafat. In 1989, the PLO Central Council nominated Arafat as Palestinian president, with the PLO assuming the role of government in exile until the 1993 Oslo Accords.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

pan-Africanism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The belief that Africans wherever they live share common cultural and spiritual values. Pan-Africanism was an important influence on the rise of nationalist movements in Africa in the first half of the twentieth century, but after decolonization its impact waned as the new states were reluctant to compromise their independence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

pan-Americanism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The movement towards commercial, social, economic, military and political co-operation among the nations of North, Central and South America.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

pan-Arabism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Movement for Arab unity as manifested in the Fertile Crescent and Greater Syria schemes as well as attempted unification of Egypt, Syria and Libya.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

pan-Asianism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The idea that Asia should free itself from Western imperialism and unite in a common effort to modernize. Espoused chiefly by Japan before 1945, but some Indian and Chinese nationalists were also attracted to the concept.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Paris Peace Accords<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Signed on 27 January 1973, the Paris Agreements provided for a cease-fire in Vietnam, the withdrawal of remaining American troops and the return of American prisoners of war.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Peace of Westphalia<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The peace settlement that ended the Thirty Years\u2019 War of 1618 to 1648, which was a series of conflicts fought mainly in the Holy Roman Empire (Germany). Those conflicts arose out of religious differences and developed into a wider struggle in Europe. The peace comprised a series of treaties negotiated between May and October 1648 signed at the Westphalian towns of Osnabr\u00fcck and M\u00fcnster. The treaties asserted the primacy of state sovereignty and the principle of non-intervention in the internal affairs of other states.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

peaceful co-existence<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An expression coined originally by Trotsky to describe the condition when there are pacific relations between states with differing social systems and competition takes place in fields other than war. The idea was vital to Soviet diplomacy, particularly after the death of Stalin.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

People\u2019s Republic of China (PRC)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The official name of communist or mainland China. The PRC came into existence in 1949 under the leadership of Mao Zedong.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

perestroika (Russian: restructuring)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The term attached to the attempts (1985\u201391) by Mikhail Gorbachev to transform the command economy of the Soviet Union into a decentralized market-oriented economy. Industrial managers and local government and party officials were granted greater autonomy and open elections were introduced in an attempt to democratize the Communist Party organization.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Platt Amendment<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Introduced by Orville H. Platt, an American senator (1879\u20131905), the Platt Amendment to the Cuban Constitution stipulated the conditions for American intervention in Cuban affairs and permitted the United States to lease a naval base in Cuba (Guantanamo Bay). The United States subsequently intervened in Cuban affairs in 1906, 1912, 1917 and 1920. The Platt Amendment was abrogated in 1934, although the United States has retained its naval base in Guantanamo Bay.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Plaza Accord<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The agreement reached by the G-5 (G-7 minus Canada and Italy) finance ministers at the Plaza Hotel in New York in 1985 to raise the value of the yen and the Deutschmark and to lower that of the dollar. The accord helped to lead to the Japanese \u2018bubble economy\u2019 of the late 1980s.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Popular Front<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Comintern policy announced in 1935 of encouraging communist parties to form coalitions with other socialist and non-socialist parties in order to provide a common front against fascism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Prague Spring<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A brief period of liberal reforms attempted by the government of Alexander Dubcek in 1968. The period ended with the invasion by Soviet- led Warsaw Pact military forces.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Princely States<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The states in British India that remained formally under the control of local rulers rather than direct British administration. They included states such as Hyderabad and Kashmir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

protectionism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The practice of regulating imports through high tariffs with the purpose of shielding domestic industries from foreign competition.protectorates   Territories administered by an imperial state without full annexation taking place, and where delegated powers typically remain in the hands of a local ruler or rulers. Examples include French Morocco and the unfederated states in Malaya.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

Q<\/summary>\n

Q<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n
R<\/summary>\n

R<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Red Cross<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Founded in 1863 by the Swiss humanitarian, Henry Dunant, the International Committee of the Red Cross was the first truly significant international NGO. It exists to alleviate the suffering of both soldiers and non-combatants and to act as a channel for aid to be given to prisoners-of-war.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Red Guards<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The students and workers who acted as the foot soldiers of the Chinese Cultural Revolution, 1966\u201369.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Reichstag<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The lower house of the German parliament during the Wilhelmine and Weimar periods.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Republic of China (ROC)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The official name for the government of China in Taiwan.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Republic of Korea (ROK)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The official name of South Korea. The ROK came into existence in 1948 under the leadership of Syngman Rhee.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Republic of Vietnam (RVN)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The official name of South Vietnam until re-unification in 1975.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

responsibility to protect (or R2P)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

This concept arose in in the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide of 1994. Under the auspices of the United Nations, the Canadian government established an international commission to examine the duties of states towards their populations as well the obligations of the international community to intervene in instances of humanitarian catastrophes such as the Rwandan genocide. The responsibility to protect was adopted as a norm (or informal rule) at the United Nations World Summit in 2005, but it has no status in international law. Critics of R2P decry it as a Western doctrine of the right of former colonial powers to intervene in the internal affairs of their former colonies. R2P was invoked in regard to UN approval for NATO\u2019s intervention in Libya in 2011.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

reverse course<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The change of emphasis from democratization to economic reconstruction that the United States introduced in its occupation of Japan, 1947\u201349.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Rio Treaty (Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Signed on 2 September 1947, and originally ratified by all 21 American republics. Under the treaty, an armed attack or threat of aggression against a signatory nation, whether by a member nation or some other power, will be considered an attack against all.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Roosevelt Corollary (to the Monroe Doctrine)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Unveiled by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904, the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine asserted that the United States had the right to intervene in the affairs of an American republic threatened with seizure or intervention by a European country.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

S<\/summary>\n

S<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

salafi<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pertaining to the good ancestral example and tradition of the Prophet Muhammad, his companions and the first four Caliphs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Schlieffen Plan<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The German pre-1914 plan for a pre-emptive military offensive against France, which would involve troops passing through neutral Belgium. It is named after the German army chief of staff, General Alfred von Schlieffen.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

self-determination<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The idea that each national group has the right to establish its own national state. It is most often associated with the tenets of Wilsonian internationalism and became a key driving force in the struggle to end imperialism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

shari\u2019a<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Islamic law which covers all aspects of life, not just religious practices.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Shi\u2019a Islam<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A Muslim sect which emerged out of the struggle over the succession following the death of the Prophet Muhammad. Derived from Shi\u2019a Ali (the Party of Ali) or those who supported the Prophet\u2019s son-in-law Ali\u2019s accession to the Caliphate. An estimated 15 per cent of Muslims are Shi\u2019a. They are concentrated in the areas of Iran, Iraq and southern Lebanon, with smaller communities scattered throughout the Muslim world.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Sino\u2013Soviet split<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The process whereby China and the Soviet Union became alienated from each other in the late 1950s and early 1960s. It is often dated from 1956 and Khrushchev\u2019s speech to the twentieth congress of the CPSU, but this view has been challenged in recent years.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

social Darwinism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A nineteenth-century theory, inspired by Charles Darwin\u2019s theory of evolution, which argued that the history of human society should be seen as \u2018the survival of the fittest\u2019. Social Darwinism was the backbone of various theories of racial and especially \u2018white\u2019 supremacy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Solidarity Movement<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A Polish independent trade union federation formed in September 1980, which, under Lech Walesa\u2019s leadership, soon posed a threat to Poland\u2019s communist government. In December 1981, the Polish government banned it and imprisoned most of its leaders. However, it persisted as an underground organization and played a major role in the negotiations that, in 1989, led to the end of communist rule in Poland.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

South-East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An alliance organized in 1954 by Australia, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand and the United States. SEATO was created after the Geneva conference on Indochina to prevent further communist gains in the region. However, it proved of little use in the Vietnam War and was disbanded in 1977.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Spanish Civil War<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Began on 18 July 1936 as an attempted right-wing military coup led by General Francisco Franco. The coup was launched with elite troops from Spanish Morocco to topple the recently elected socialist and anti-clerical Popular Front government. Franco\u2019s Nationalists failed to take Madrid, and the Republican government of President Azana remained in control of much of Spain. Both sides appealed for outside help to achieve victory. As a result, Spain became Europe\u2019s ideological battlefield. Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy intervened on the side of the Nationalists, while the Soviet Union sent aid to the Republicans. Britain and France tried to contain the war. The fighting dragged on for three terrible years, during which three-quarters of a million people perished. The civil war ended in April 1939. General Franco\u2019s dictatorship lasted until he died in 1975.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties (SALT I and II)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The agreements between the United States and the Soviet Union for the control of certain nuclear weapons, the first concluded in 1972 (SALT I) and the second drafted in 1979 (SALT II) but not ratified.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Begun in 1982, after the failed ratification of the SALT II Agreement, the START negotiations between the United States and the USSR led first to the 1987 Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) treaty to eliminate intermediate-range nuclear forces. In 1991 START I committed both sides to additional reductions in American and Soviet nuclear arsenals as well as on-site inspections. This was followed in 1993 by START II which called for a reduction in nuclear warheads by two-thirds by 2003. START also provided a framework for the nuclear disarmament of Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

structural adjustment programme <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The idea propagated by the World Bank from the end of the 1970s which linked the provision of development aid to Third World states to the latter committing themselves to balanced budgets, austerity programmes and the sale of nationalized industries and property.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

submarine- (or sea-) launched ballistic missile (SLBM)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A ballistic missile designed for launch by a submarine (or surface ship).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Sudetenland<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The geographical area in Bohemia mainly inhabited by ethnic Germans. In 1919 it was placed on the Czech side of the German\u2013Czech border and in 1938 led to an international crisis ending in the infamous Munich Agreement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Suez Crisis<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The failed attempt by Britain and France in 1956 to take advantage of a war between Israel and Egypt by seizing control of the Suez Canal and bringing down the government of Gamal Abdel Nasser. It is often taken as a symbol of the collapse of European imperialism and the rise of the Third World.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Sunni Islam<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The main body of Muslims, who follow the path (sunna<\/em>) of the Prophet Mohammed and the Quran and the hadith<\/em>.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

T<\/summary>\n

T<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Taliban<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

(Arabic: students) Term used to refer to the fundamentalist Muslim militia of Pashtun Afghans and Pakistanis that overthrew the Afghan ethnic coalition government of Ahmad Shah Masood in 1998.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tet Offensive<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The attack launched by the NLF in South Vietnam in late January and early February 1968, named after the country\u2019s most important holiday, the lunar new year. Although the offensive was not a military success for the NLF, it was a political and psychological victory as it dramatically contradicted optimistic claims by the American government that the war had already been won.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Third World<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A collective term of French origin for those states that are neither part of the developed capitalist world nor the communist bloc. It includes the states of Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, South Asia and South-East Asia. Also referred to as \u2018the South\u2019 in contrast to the developed \u2018North\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tiananmen Square<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The main square in Beijing where Mao declared the foundation of the PRC in October 1949 and where students protested against communist rule in the spring of 1989. The student movement was crushed on 3 June 1989 by units of the PLA.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

total war<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A war that uses all resources at a state\u2019s disposal including the complete mobilization of both the economy and society.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Treaty of Lisbon (2009)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Amended the constitutional basis of the European Union (EU). Its most important reforms included the move from unanimity to qualified majority voting in a number of policy areas, increasing the powers of the European Parliament, as well as the creation of two new posts: a long-term President of the European Council, and a High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tripartite Pact<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A mutual aid treaty signed between Germany, Japan and Italy in Berlin on 27 September 1940. The pact was intended to deter the United States from interfering in the creation of a German new order in Europe and a Japanese new order in Asia. Article 3 of the pact, as well as additional secret clauses, stated that the pact did not commit the parties to go to war on each other\u2019s behalf.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Truman Doctrine<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The policy of American President Harry S. Truman, as advocated in his address to Congress on 12 March 1947, to provide military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey. Subsequently used to justify aid to any country perceived to be threatened by communism.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

U<\/summary>\n

U<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

U-2 spy planes<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

American high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft used to fly over Soviet and other hostile territories.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

U-boat (English abbreviation of Unterseeboot<\/em>)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A German submarine.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

ulama<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Clerics or Islamic scholars who are learned in theology and the shari\u2019a<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

unconditional surrender<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A doctrine that was first articulated at Casablanca in January 1943 by President Roosevelt at the Anglo-American summit meeting. The view that there could be no negotiated peace with the Axis stemmed from the sharp moral distinction between the Grand Alliance and the Axis as expressed in documents such as the Atlantic Charter and the United National Declaration, as well as the desire on the part of the Allies not to repeat what they saw as the chief error of 1918\u201319 \u2013 that Germany had not been thoroughly beaten before the Versailles Treaty was imposed.United Nations (UN)  An international organization established after the Second World War to replace the League of Nations. Since its establishment in 1945, its membership has grown to 193 countries.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

V<\/summary>\n

V<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Versailles Treaty<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The treaty that ended the Allied state of hostilities with Germany in 1919. It included German territorial losses, disarmament, a so-called war guilt clause and a demand that reparations be paid to the victors.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Vichy France<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The regime led by Marshal P\u00e9tain that surrendered to Hitler\u2019s Germany in June 1940 and subsequently controlled France until liberation in 1944.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Viet Minh<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Vietnamese, communist-led organization whose forces fought against the Japanese and the French in Indochina. Headed by Ho Chi Minh, the Viet Minh was officially in existence from 1941 to 1951.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Vietnamization<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

President Nixon\u2019s policy of gradually withdrawing US ground troops from Vietnam while simultaneously building up the strength of the South Vietnamese armed forces. The policy was implemented from 1969 when there were more than half a million US troops in Vietnam; the programme of withdrawals was effectively completed in the autumn of 1972.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

W<\/summary>\n

W<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Warsaw Pact (Warsaw Treaty Organization)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An alliance set up in 1955 under a mutual defence treaty signed in Warsaw by Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and the Soviet Union. The organization was the Soviet bloc\u2019s equivalent of NATO. Albania formally withdrew in 1968. The Warsaw Pact was dissolved in June 1991.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u2018Washington Consensus\u2019<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

An expression referring to the neo-liberal economic policies that the World Bank and the IMF imposed on recipients of loans from these institutions from the 1980s onwards. It was coined in 1989 by the British economist, John Williamson.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

weapons of mass destruction (WMD)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Commonly understood to be nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. The uses of bacteriological agents and chemicals in warfare pre-date the twentieth century, but nuclear weapons made their first appearance at the end of the Second World War. Of the three, nuclear bombs are the only weapons genuinely capable of the \u2018mass\u2019 destruction of life and property. The term WMD denotes the stigma associated with the development and use of these particular weapons, however, more than offering an accurate description of the scale of their destructive effects. Some experts suggest that chemical, biological and radiological weapons (dirty bombs) should in fact be described as \u2018weapons of mass terror\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Weimar Republic<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The German parliamentary democracy that existed between November 1918 and January 1933. Attacked from both the Right and the Left of the political spectrum, it never won the loyalty of the majority of Germans.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Wilsonian internationalism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Woodrow Wilson\u2019s notion, outlined in his so-called Fourteen Points, of trying to create a new world society, which would be governed by the self-determination of peoples, be free from secret diplomacy and wars, and have an association of nations to maintain international justice.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

X<\/summary>\n

X<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

There is no content for this section.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

Y<\/summary>\n

Y<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

yishuv (Hebrew: settlement)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Jewish settlement in Palestine before the establishment of the State of Israel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Young Plan<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Name given to a financial scheme, worked out in 1929 by a committee chaired by the American businessman Owen D. Young, to reduce German reparations and arrange fresh credit for Germany. It was informally agreed by German, French and British delegates that reparations would be scaled back further if the former European Allies secured a reduction in debt repayments to the United States.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Young Turks<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Name given to a group of young army officers who in 1908 pushed the Ottoman Empire towards reformist policies and a more overtly Turkish nationalist stance.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n

Z<\/summary>\n

Z<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n

Zionism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Movement for the re-establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. Theodor Herzl is conventionally seen as the founding father of political Zionism based on his 1896 book Der Judenstaat<\/em>.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

\n
  1. A<\/a><\/li>
  2. B<\/a><\/li>
  3. C<\/a><\/li>
  4. D<\/a><\/li>
  5. E<\/a><\/li>
  6. F<\/a><\/li>
  7. G<\/a><\/li>
  8. H<\/a><\/li>
  9. I<\/a><\/li>
  10. J<\/a><\/li>
  11. K<\/a><\/li>
  12. L<\/a><\/li>
  13. M<\/a><\/li>
  14. N<\/a><\/li>
  15. O<\/a><\/li>
  16. P<\/a><\/li>
  17. Q<\/a><\/li>
  18. R<\/a><\/li>
  19. S<\/a><\/li>
  20. T<\/a><\/li>
  21. U<\/a><\/li>
  22. V<\/a><\/li>
  23. W<\/a><\/li>
  24. X<\/a><\/li>
  25. Y<\/a><\/li>
  26. Z<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"featured_media":0,"parent":531,"menu_order":0,"template":"wp-custom-template-single-chapter-page","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"tags":[8],"class_list":["post-542","content","type-content","status-publish","hentry","tag-other-content"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/content\/542","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/content"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/content"}],"version-history":[{"count":36,"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/content\/542\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":683,"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/content\/542\/revisions\/683"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/content\/531"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=542"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/routledgelearning.com\/internationalhistory20c\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=542"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}