1850 – 1899: The Victorian Era
Progress, Empire, and Innovation
The mid-to-late 19th century epitomized human ambition and technological achievement. The Victorian era brought unprecedented scientific discoveries, territorial expansion, and cultural refinement alongside growing social consciousness.
Revolutionary Changes:
- Darwin’s theory of evolution challenges traditional beliefs
- American Civil War ends slavery
- Suez Canal opens global trade routes
- Edison’s inventions illuminate the world
- Women’s suffrage movements emerge
This era balanced remarkable progress with growing awareness of social inequality, setting the stage for the transformative century to follow.
There are 34 entries in this timeline
1861
Italian unification
March 1861
1863
Beginning of Henry Dunant’s campaign to establish the Red Cross
February 1863
1864
First Geneva Convention for Victims of War
August 1864
The 1864 Geneva Convention was an early multilateral treaty attempting to reduce suffering through war by introducing common standards of behaviour.
1871
German unification declared at Versailles
January 1871
German unification resulted from a series of wars undertaken by Prussia in the 1860s, against Denmark in 1864, against Austria in 1866, and finally against France in 1870–71. However, while Austrian anger over the 1866 Seven Weeks’ War soon receded, the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War resulted in long-term French hostility. French anger arose in part from the annexation of the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine by Germany, but more generally from German assumption of the central role in the Great Power system previously played by France. Proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors at the Versailles Palace only further humiliated and angered the French, and the resulting Franco-German hostility became a central feature of European international relations after 1871.
“Wernerprokla” by Anton von Werner – Museen Nord / Bismarck Museum: Picture. Licensed under Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.
1876
Start of Bulgarian revolt against Ottoman rule
April 1876
1877
Outbreak of Russo-Turkish War
April 1877
“Serio-comic war map for 1877” by Rose, Fred. W. (Frederick W.), artist. – http://nla.gov.au/nla.map-vn6289126. Licensed under Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.
1878
Congress of Berlin on Eastern Question
July 1878
German Chancellor Bismarck acted as “honest broker” in resolving the crisis created by the Russo-Turkish War and subsequent Russian victories. The Congress reorganized the Balkans: Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania gained independence, Austria-Hungary gained power of administration in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Britain taking Cyprus, Russia obtaining Bessarabia and parts of Armenia, while losing most of the gains made by its satellite Bulgarian state. Ultimately the Congress preserved the peace, yet led to greater Austro-Russian competition over the Balkans, in turn forcing Austria-Hungary into closer relations with Germany, while Balkan nationalist aspirations remained unquenched.
“SouthEast Europe 1878” by Robert H. Labberton, E. Elaxton and Co. – Map from “An Historical Atlas” by Robert H. Labberton, E. Elaxton and Co., 1884.. Licensed under Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.
1878
Treaty of Berlin forces the Ottoman Empire and is successor states to uphold religious freedom and not to persecute minorities
July 1878
1879
Austro-German Dual Alliance
October 1879
As a result of Russian anger over the Congress of Berlin, Austria-Hungary and Germany founded a defensive alliance, which became the cornerstone of the pre-1914 alliance system.
1881
Anti-Jewish pogroms take place in the Russian Empire
April 1881
1882
Triple Alliance (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy)
May 1882
Italy joined the Dual Alliance following French annexation of Tunisia, a territory desired by Italy. Italy specified the terms would not require its joining a war against Britain. Italian irredentism against Habsburg territory additionally made Italy an unsteady partner.
1882
Publication of Leo Pinkser’s pamphlet Auto-Emancipation
January 1882
Pinsker argued that Jewish people would never be treated as equals in Europe until they had a nation state, shifting from assimilationist goals to separatist.
1882
Start of first Aliyah to Palestine
January 1882
1884
Berlin Conference on West Africa
1884–85
1887
Russo-German ‘Reinsurance Treaty’
June 1887
The agreement pledged neutrality in the event of war with a third party, with exceptions for a German attack on France or Russian attack on Austria-Hungary. The secret agreement exemplified the complex diplomatic web created by Bismarck, one which his successors could not maintain.
1888
Wilhelm II becomes German Emperor
June 1888
1889
First Inter-American conference in Washington DC
January 1889
Blaine conference sought arbitration agreement and greater economic integration as means of improving inter-American relations.
1890
Bismarck resigns as German Chancellor
March 1890
The elderly Bismarck rapidly fell into conflict with the youthful Wilhelm II, who sought a larger direct role in politics. After conflicting over legislative policy, Wilhelm II dismissed the aging Chancellor, taking a far more direct role in diplomacy than his predecessors.
1891
Franco-Russian political agreement
August 1891
1891
Establishment of the Jewish Colonial Association
September 1891
1892
Franco-Russian military convention
August 1892
Early alliance obligated the parties to militarily assist one another in case of attack by another member of the Triple Alliance.
1894
Franco-Russian alliance
January 1894
1894
Nicholas II becomes Russian Emperor
November 1894
1896
Battle of Adowa
March 1896
1896
Publication of Theodor Herzl’s Der Judenstaat
February 1896
1897
Austro-Russian Balkan Agreement
May 1897
1897
First Zionist congress held in Basle
August 1897
1898
First German Navy Law
March 1898
The First German Navy Law called for the systematic creation of a German battleship fleet. The fleet was built as part of Admiral Tirpitz’s ‘Risk Theory’ against Britain. According to the theory, even if the German fleet was not large enough to defeat the British at sea, it would inflict unacceptable levels of damage on the British navy, leaving it unable to protect Britain from its implaccable enemies France and Russia. The reasoning held that unwilling to accept such a defeat, and unable to resolve its differences with France and Russia, Britain would be forced to accept German interests in the world. The Navy Laws backfired, spurring British reconciliation with France and Russia.
1898
Ivan Bloch publishes War in the Future
April 1898
His influential work held that modern military technology and industrial organization would render war so lengthy and destructive that society would collapse, rendering war impossible.
1898
Fashoda Crisis (Britain and France)
September 1898
Anglo-French colonial crisis over control of Sudan nearly led to war between the two powers.
1898
Spanish–American War begins
April 1898
Imperial war highlights US rise as a Great Power, taking Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Pacific Island territories from Spain and annexing Hawaii.
1899
First Hague Peace Conference
May 1899
Russian Czar Nicholas II called the conference to limit armaments, codify rules of war, and establish arbitration of international disputes. High public expectations of disarmament were rapidly deflated by limited results.
1899
Outbreak of South African War
October 1899
1899
Signing of Hague Convention outlining the rules of war.
July 1899
The two Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907 extended rules of war, and attempted to include all independent nations in rule-making to ceate universal norms.