1950 – 1999: The Space Age
Technology, Liberation, and Global Connection
The latter half of the 20th century witnessed humanity’s greatest technological leaps while social movements fought for equality and justice. The Cold War defined international relations as digital technology began transforming daily life.
Milestone Achievements:
- Space exploration reaches the moon
- Civil rights movements advance equality
- Personal computers enter homes
- Internet connects the global community
- Berlin Wall falls, ending Cold War division
This era bridged the industrial and digital ages, creating the interconnected world we know today while expanding human rights and freedoms.
There are 537 entries in this timeline
1950
Korean War begins
June 1950
1950
Britain and India recognize the PRC
January 1950
1950
The PRC and the USSR recognize the Viet Minh regime
January 1950
1950
Kim Il-Sung lobbies Stalin to approve a DPRK attack on the ROK
January 1950
1950
The PRC and the USSR sign a treaty of alliance
February 1950
1950
Secretary of State Dean Acheson indicates that the United States is not committed to the defence of the ROK
February 1950
1950
The United States begins military aid to France in Vietnam
May 1950
The long US involvement in Vietnam was initiated in 1950, influenced by US shock at the Communist takeover of China.
1950
The DPRK launches the Korean War
June 1950
North Korean aggression increased the risk of superpower confrontation in the Cold War. The rapid overrunning of South Korea was halted by US intervention, with General MacArthur landing at Inchon and pushing north to the Yalu River.
1950
The United Nations calls on its members to support the ROK
June 1950
1950
The United States places its 7th Fleet in the Taiwan Straits
June 1950
1950
UN forces cross the 38th parallel and invade the DPRK
October 1950
1950
The PRC enters the Korean War
November 1950
US actions in the Korean War brought China into the conflict, fearing US forces on its northern border. The Chinese counterattack pushed UN forces south to the center of Korea, the war descending into a stalemate.
1950
US aid for the French military effort in Vietnam begins
July 1950
The long US involvement in Vietnam was initiated in 1950, influenced by US shock at the Communist takeover of China.
1950
Nehru refuses to attend the Baguio Conference in the Philippines
May 1950
1950
Creation of the Colombo Plan
November 1950
1950
The DPRK launches the Korean War
June 1950
1950
Kim Il-Sung lobbies Stalin to approve a DPRK invasion of the ROK
January 1950
1950
The PRC and the USSR sign a treaty of alliance
February 1950
China feared the US might support the GMD in an attempt to overthrow the CCP and sought out Soviet assistance. The alliance allowed China to intervene in the Korean War, entangling the US in Asia without risking a direct confrontation with the Soviet Union.
1950
The DPRK launches the Korean War
June 1950
1950
The United States places its 7th Fleet in the Taiwan Straits
June 1950
1950
UN forces cross the 38th parallel and invade the DPRK
October 1950
US invasion of North Korea heightened Chinese suspicions of US intentions and raised the spectre of a simultaneous invasion from Korea, Taiwan and Indochina. In response, China directly intervened in the conflict, leading to stalemate.
1950
The PRC enters the Korean War
November 1950
1950
The United States, Britain and France sign the Tripartite Agreement committing them to arm neither Israel nor the Arabs
May 1950
1950
Schuman Declaration prompting negotiations to establish the ECSC
May 1950
1950
The Council of Europe issues the ‘European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms’
November 1950
1951
ECSC formed
April 1951
1951
ANZUS formed
September 1951
1951
President Truman dismisses General MacArthur as US commander in Korea
April 1951
1951
Opening of cease-fire talks in Korea
July 1951
1951
San Francisco Peace Conference ends state of war with Japan
September 1951
US peace with Japan was accompanied by a security treaty allowing eventual Japanese rearmament, and providing Japan with a larger role in regional stability.
1951
US–Japanese Security Treaty signed
September 1951
1951
US–Philippines and ANZUS Security Treaties signed
September 1951
In the wake of the Korean War, the US initiated a series of diplomatic initiatives to defend the region against Communist threats, including ANZUS, SEATO and treaties with the Philippines, Japan and South Korea.
1951
India refuses to sign the San Francisco peace treaty with Japan
September 1951
1951
San Francisco Peace Conference ends state of war with Japan
September 1951
US peace with Japan was accompanied by a security treaty allowing eventual Japanese rearmament, and providing Japan with a larger role in regional stability.
1951
US–Japanese Security Treaty signed
September 1951
1951
Opening of cease-fire talks in Korea
July 1951
1951
Nkrumah’s Convention People’s Party wins the legislative elections in the Gold Coast and he is made first minister
February 1951
1951
Assassination of King Abdullah of Jordan
July 1951
1951
An army coup in Egypt overthrows King Farouk
July 1951
1951
Signing of the ECSC Treaty in Paris
April 1951
The European Coal and Steel Community harnessed German industry to France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxemburg, and Italy. Coal and steel production was necessary for post-war reconstruction of Europe, and the organization allowed the rebuilding of German industry without the danger of further conflict with France.
1951
The UNGA adopts the ‘UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees’
July 1951
1952
American–Japanese Administrative Agreement signed
February 1952
1952
Japan recognizes the ROC as the government of China
March 1952
1952
Japan regains full sovereignty
April 1952
1952
Foundation of Hizbut Tahrir in East Jerusalem
November 1952
1953
Stalin dies
March 1953
The death of Stalin marked a thaw in the Cold War, as potential successors maneuvered for power. The death of Stalin and election of Eisenhower provided an opportunity for improved relations, but the eventual consolidation of power by Khrushchev ended the transitionary period. During the thaw, a settlement of the Korean War, Vietnamese War, and Austrian statehood were all achieved.
1953
Death of Joseph Stalin
March 1953
1953
Signing of Korean War armistice
July 1953
1953
Signing of US–ROK Security Treaty
October 1953
1953
Signing of Korean War armistice
July 1953
1953
Signing of US–ROK Security Treaty
October 1953
1953
Death of Joseph Stalin
February 1953
1953
Signing of Korean War armistice
July 1953
1953
Overthrow of Mussadiq regime in Iran
August 1953
The overthrow of Mussadiq with CIA support undermined the credibility of the Shah’s government in Iran. Subsequent Iranian reforms by the Shah were tainted by his dependence on western support.
1954
SEATO formed
September 1954
1954
Convening of Geneva Conference which fails to reach a permanent settlement for Korea
April 1954
1954
Start of first Quemoy–Matsu incident
September 1954
1954
Signing of SEATO
September 1954
1954
Signing of US–ROC Security Treaty
December 1954
1954
French defeat at Dien Bien Phu
May 1954
Decisive French defeat in Vietnam heralds the end of the French phase of the conflict.
1954
Geneva Accords 1954
July 1954
The death of Stalin brought a thaw in East–West relations, contributing to the 1954 Geneva Accords. The Accords called for the temporary division of Vietnam into northern and southern halves until elections in 1956. Laos and Cambodia were separated from Indochina as monarchies. Ultimately, South Vietnam refused to participate in the 1956 elections.
1954
Founding of SEATO
September 1954
1954
Sino-Indian border treaty signed
April 1954
1954
Colombo conference leads to announcement of decision to convene African–Asian Conference in the following year
April 1954
1954
Establishment of Self-Defence Force in Japan
May 1954
1954
Signing of US–ROC Security Treaty
December 1954
1954
Fall of Yoshida from power
December 1954
1954
Convening of Geneva Conference
April 1954
1954
First Quemoy–Matsu crisis
September 1954
1954
CIA helps to overthrow the Arbenz government in Guatemala
June 1954
US fears of Communist influence and nationalization of fruit company property led to US assistance in coup. The coup further embitters Latin Americans against US interference and influences the later Castro regime to seek Soviet support.
1954
Start of Algerian War of Independence
November 1954
France considered Algeria an integral part of the nation, thus would not recognize independence, starting a long fratricidal conflict. Like the war in Indochina, France believed that it could not retreat without losing political status, thus engaged in long and costly struggles.
1954
Lavon Affair in which Israeli agents attack western property in Egypt
July 1954
1954
General Nasser becomes president of Egypt
October 1954
The ascendance of Nasser placed a charismatic leader at the head of Egypt, seeking Arab unity and Arab socialism.
1954
Western European Union formed
October 1954
1955
Warsaw Pact formed
May 1955
1955
EEC established (Rome Treaty)
May 1955
1955
Geneva summit
July 1955
1955
South Vietnam becomes the Republic of Vietnam
October 1955
1955
Convening of Bandung Conference
April 1955
Summit of newly independent African and Asian states attempted to create a co-ordinated position against imperialism, ultimately leading to policy of non-alignment. This differed from European neutrality in allowing security agreements while avoiding commitments to the superpowers, thus protecting newly-won sovereignty.
1955
Return of sovereignty to Austria
May 1955
Austria adopted a policy of neutrality in the Cold War in return for an end to post-war occupation. Neutrality as pursued by European states sought to avoid political entanglement with either superpower bloc, for a variety of local reasons.
1955
Nehru visit to the Soviet Union
June 1955
1955
Japan enters GATT although the states of Western Europe refuse to extend full MFN rights to it
September 1955
1955
Socialist factions in Japan merge to create JSP
November 1955
1955
Conservative parties in Japan merge to form the LDP
November 1955
1955
Mao pushes for collectivization of agriculture in the PRC
May 1955
1955
Kim Il-Sung introduces idea of ‘juche’ (self-reliance)
December 1955
1955
Juan Peron overthrown in a coup in Argentina
September 1955
1955
Israel launches large-scale raid on Gaza
February 1955
1955
Signing of Egyptian–Czech arms deal
September 1955
1955
Start of talks on the formation of the EEC and EURATOM
June 1955
1956
Hungarian Revolution
October 1956
1956
Suez Crisis
October 1956
1956
Nehru, Tito and Nasser meet at Brioni in Yugoslavia
July 1956
1956
Sukarno visit to the Soviet Union
August 1956
1956
Suez crisis and Soviet intervention in Hungary
October-November 1956
1956
Japan normalizes relations with the Soviet Union
October 1956
1956
Japan enters the United Nations
December 1956
1956
Khrushchev’s ‘de-Stalination’ speech to the CPSU 20th Congress
February 1956
Krushchev’s denunciation of Stalinist policy, as well as calls for peaceful co-existence in Europe, provided a pretext to Chinese leadership for further divergence of Chinese policy from the Soviet Union.
1956
Soviet intervention in Hungary
November 1956
1956
Nicaraguan Dictator Anastasio Somoza assassinated
September 1956
1956
France grants independence to Morocco and Tunisia
March 1956
1956
Suez Crisis
October-November 1956
1956
The United States reneges on its agreement to fund the Aswan Dam
July 1956
1956
Egypt nationalizes the Suez Canal
July 1956
The nationalization of the Suez Canal occurred as a result of breakdown in relations between Egypt and the west over a number of issues, including Egyptian support for Algerian independence and arms deals with the Eastern bloc. Following US cancellation of funding for the Aswan Dam, Nasser nationalized the canal, threatening western interests in the trade route to Asia.
1956
Egypt closes the Straits of Tiran
September 1956
1956
Britain, France and Israel collude to attack Egypt
October 1956
In response to deteriorating relations, Britain, France and Israel jointly plan attacks on Egypt, seizing the Sinai Peninsula and the Suez Canal. The US, having not been consulted in advance, angrily denounced the action and pressured the invaders to end the war. The resulting decline of French and British influence in the region in turn created a vacuum, with the superpowers increasing their role.
1956
Israeli invasion of the Sinai
October 1956
1956
Britain and France intervene to ‘preserve’ the security of the Suez Canal
October 1956
1956
US pressure forces Britain, France and Israel to suspend military operations
November 1956
1957
Sputnik launched
October 1957
Soviet success in launching the first artificial satellite spurred US fears of technological decline, later followed in the 1960 election with claims of a ‘missile gap’. The Soviets gained a propaganda coup, although US technology rapidly surpassed the Soviets in the 1960s with the race to the moon.
1957
Independence of Ghana
March 1957
Ghana was the first sub-Saharan African state to gain independence from the colonial powers, with a pan-African policy pursued by Kwame Nkrumah.
1957
Formation of Kishi government
February 1957
1957
Launch of the Hundred Flowers movement
February 1957
1957
Launch of the Anti-Rightist campaign in China
July 1957
1957
The USSR promises to help the PRC develop an atomic bomb
October 1957
1957
‘Papa Doc’ Duvalier takes over the government in Haiti
October 1957
1957
Independence of Ghana
March 1957
1957
Signing of the Rome Treaty
March 1957
The ‘Inner Six’ states of the ECSC sought deeper economic integration, and entered into negotiations for the EEC and EURATOM. Through a process of compromises, these states built a common market through liberalized internal trade.
1958
American provision of $225 million aid package to India
March 1958
1958
American and British intervention in Lebanon and Jordan respectively
July 1958
1958
Launch of the Great Leap Forward
January 1958
Great Leap Forward attempted radical economic change through collective agriculture and industrialization, leading to massive dislocation and internal turmoil.
1958
Kim Il-Sung purges his enemies from the KWP
March 1958
1958
Second Quemoy–Matsu crisis
August 1958
1958
US Vice-president Richard Nixon tours Latin America,
May 1958
1958
Nkrumah hosts All-African People’s Conference in Accra
April 1958
Nkrumah sought Pan-African unity through the creation of an African federation. Ultimately other African states, including the Monrovia Group, rejected federation after having recently won independence.
1958
Guinea votes to reject membership of the French Community
September 1958
1958
Establishment of the United Arab Republic (UAR) of Egypt and Syria
February 1958
1958
US and British interventions in Lebanon and Jordan respectively
July 1958
1959
Camp David summit
September 1959
1959
The USSR reneges on its atomic bomb promise
June 1959
1959
Peng Dehuai purged at Lushan conference
July 1959
1959
Sino-Indian border clashes
August 1959
1959
Fidel Castro takes power in Cuba
January 1959
1959
Establishment of the Inter-American Development Bank
December 1959
In an attempt to repair strained relations with Latin America, the IADB begins funding infrastructure projects in Latin America. Overall, despite the shift from trade to aid, the US continues its focus on military rather than economic aid.
1959
State of emergency introduced in Nyasaland (Malawi) beginning a chain of events that led to an abrupt change in British policy towards East Africa
March 1959
1959
Formation of Fatah as a Palestinian guerrilla organization
October 1959
1960
U-2 incident and abortive Paris summit
May 1960
Declining superpower relations ended the post-Stalin thaw with the shooting down of a US spy plane over Russia. Khrushchev seized upon the incident in denouncing the US and renewing more direct confrontation.
1960
Kennedy elected
November 1960
1960
National Liberation Front (NLF, also called the Viet Cong) founded
December 1960
1960
Establishment of OPEC
September 1960
1960
Publication of W.W. Rostow’s The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto
1960
1960
UNGA passes Resolutions 1514 and 1522 calling for end to colonial rule and for 1960s to be ‘development decade’ respectively
December 1960
1960
Signing of new US–Japan Security Treaty
January 1960
1960
Syngman Rhee forced to resign as ROK President
April 1960
1960
Beginning of Security treaty crisis in Japan
May 1960
Domestic opponents to the US Security Treaty sought greater equality with the US, while pacifists opposed the security arrangment, and others feared a remilitarization of Japanese society. When the JSP tried to block ratification of the treaty, Kishi forced a rapid vote. The resulting crisis over his increasingly authoritarian rule led to large-scale unrest.
1960
Formation of Ikeda government
July 1960
1960
Start of the polemical war between the USSR and the PRC
April 1960
The Sino-Soviet split occurred over a number of issues, including Soviet reneging on a promise to supply China with nuclear technology, Chinese anger at Soviet inaction on de-colonization, and general disputes over leadership of the Communist movement. The open break between the two states led to open denunciations.
1960
The USSR pulls its economic advisors out of China
July 1960
1960
Civil war in Guatemala begins (lasts until 1996)
November 1960
1960
Sharpeville massacre in South Africa
March 1960
1960
Belgium grants independence to the Congo
June 1960
1960
The province of Katanga secedes from the Congo; Lumumba turns to the UN for assistance
July 1960
1960
Independence of Nigeria
October 1960
1960
EFTA treaty signed in Stockholm
January 1960
Britain initially preferred imperial trade to membership in the EEC, but created a free trade area with Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland without the institutional ties of the EEC.
1961
Bay of Pigs
April 1961
1961
Vienna Summit
June 1961
1961
Berlin Wall construction begins
August 1961
1961
Bay of Pigs
April 1961
1961
United States initiates Alliance for Progress directed at Latin America
March 1961
1961
First non-aligned summit held in Belgrade
September 1961
The first NAM summit resulted in a more radical stance than at the Bandung Conference, with stated goals of ending apartheid, economic lobbying, and the creation of a pressure group to influence world politics.
1961
Park Chung-Hee and the ROKA seize power in a coup in the ROK
May 1961
1961
United States breaks off diplomatic relations with Cuba
January 1961
1961
The US launches the Alliance for Progress
March 1961
The Kennedy administration began a more ambitious project to fund development in Latin America on a level comparable to the Marshall Plan. In spite of initial enthusiasm in both north and south, the US was unwilling to force institutional change on Latin American states, and without social reforms the aid was unable to overcome social divisions.
1961
Failed Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba
April 1961
Kennedy entered office in 1961 with a plan to overthrow Castro prepared. Kennedy put the plan into effect, with CIA assistance for Cuban insurgents, but failed to deliver air support following international outcry at the action. The invasion failed, leading Castro to seek greater Soviet support, resulting in the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.
1961
Rafael Trujillo assassinated in the Dominican Republic
May 1961
1961
Lumumba murdered
January 1961
1961
Guinea expels Soviet advisors
December 1961
1961
Syria secedes from the UAR
September 1961
1961
Foundation of Amnesty International
July 1961
The foundation of Amnesty International was representative of the increased role of the public and media in asserting and defending human rights in the post-war era.
1962
Cuban Missile Crisis
October 1962
The Cuban Missile Crisis began with Soviet installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba. Khrushchev had hoped for a propaganda victory through the action, while Castro sought security against US intervention. Kennedy responded with a blockade of Cuba, resulting in one of the greatest crises in the Cold War and greatest risks of nuclear war. Soviet withdrawal of the missiles resolved the crisis, leading to the fall of Khrushchev two years later, and awakening the superpowers to the need to manage competition.
1962
Neutralization of Laos
July 1962
Following the Geneva Accords of 1954, Laos was a greater seat of turmoil in the region. In 1957, the neutral Souvanna government formed a coalition with the Communist Pathet Lao, which was followed by a CIA-backed coup in 1958, and return to power in 1960 of Souvanna. As the state spiralled into civil war, the superpowers agreed to neutralize the state.
1962
Non-aligned economic conference held in Cairo
July 1962
1962
Outbreak of Sino-Indian War
October 1962
Indian acceptance of US military aid against China in the 1962 war undermined Indian leadership of the NAM.
1962
Publication of Rachel Carson’s The Silent Spring
September 1962
1962
Announcement of ROK Five-Year Plan to build up substitution industries for export
January 1962
1962
Cuban Missile Crisis and Sino-Indian War
October 1962
1962
The DPRK introduces its ‘equal emphasis’ policy
December 1962
1962
Cuban Missile Crisis
October 1962
1962
Evian accords grant independence to Algeria
March 1962
1962
Common Agricultural Policy agreed among EEC members
July 1962
1962
Publication in Russia of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn’s A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich
November 1962
1963
Franco-German Treaty
January 1963
1963
Limited Test Ban Treaty
August 1963
As a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis, superpower relations entered a thaw, with attempts to channel competittion into less destructive avenues. The superpowers reached several agreements including Open Skies, the Hotline Agreement, and the Limited Test Ban Treaty, all seeking to reduce the risk of nuclear war. The LTBT ended atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.
1963
Kennedy assassination
November 1963
1963
Coup against Ngo Dinh Diem in South Vietnam
November 1963
The Diem regime lacked legitimacy within South Vietnam and had been weakened by corruption. Tacit US support for a coup in 1963 led to the removal of Diem, although successor regimes were also unable to establish legitimacy.
1963
Indonesia announces policy of ‘Konfrontasi’ against British-backed Malaysia
January 1963
1963
The Shah of Iran begins his ‘white revolution’ modernization programme
January 1963
1963
Ghana implicated in assassination of President Olympio of Togo
January 1963
1963
Establishment of the Organization of African States (OAU)
May 1963
As an alternative to Nkrumah’s visions of pan-African unity, the OAU sought cultural unity while upholding the boundaries of existing states.
1963
The Shah of Iran launches his White Revolution
January 1963
1963
De Gaulle rejects British application to join the EEC
January 1963
De Gaulle exploited the EEC to increase French power, repeatedly rejecting British applications to enter, fearing British clout, and fearing US influence in the EEC through Britain.
1964
Khrushchev ousted in the Soviet Union
October 1964
1964
China tests a nuclear weapon
October 1964
1964
Gulf of Tonkin incidents
August 1964
US President Johnson exploited attacks on US naval forces in the Gulf of Tonkin to gain Congressional authorization to take any needed actions in Vietnam. The granting of extensive power led to the period of the ‘imperial presidency’ and eventual backlash.
1964
UNCTAD established to oversee UN work on development
March 1964
1964
Death of Nehru
May 1964
1964
Foundation of Group of 77 (G-77)
June 1964
The Group of 77 was an attempt to organize newly independent states into a bloc capable of negotiating with world powers, the G-77 seeking an improved bargaining position on trade issues.
1964
Second non-aligned summit held in Cairo
October 1964
1964
Formation of Sato government
November 1964
1964
Ousting of Khrushchev in the USSR
October 1964
1964
The PRC successfully tests its first atomic bomb
October 1964
1964
Military overthrows Joao Goulart’s government in Brazil
March 1964
1964
Imprisonment of Nelson Mandela and other senior ANC figures
June 1964
Increasing racial segregation in South Africa led to the imposition of apartheid and eventually the imprisonment of Mandela and ANC leadership. South Africa and other white-ruled states became increasingly militant, seeing segregation as the only guarantee of their positions within society.
1964
Establishment of the Palestine Liberation Organization in Cairo
January 1964
1964
Ayatollah Khomeini goes into exile
November 1964
1965
Sustained US bombing of North Vietnam begins
March 1965
1965
First US combat troops arrive in Vietnam
March 1965
The inability of the US to stabilize South Vietnam through aid or airstrikes led to the large-scale deployment of American troops.
1965
Second African–Asian conference cancelled following a coup in Algeria
June 1965
1965
Outbreak of second Indo-Pakistan War
August 1965
1965
A failed army coup in Indonesia paves the way for the eventual overthrow of President Sukarno in Indonesia in 1966.
October 1965
The overthrow of Sukarno ended Indonesian leadership of NAM, which sought more radical opposition to neo-colonialism.
1965
Opening of Japan–ROK diplomatic relations
April 1965
1965
US marines occupy the Dominican Republic
April 1965
1965
South Rhodesia makes a unilateral declaration of independence from Britain
November 1965
1965
First human rights protest held in Moscow
December 1965
1966
France leaves NATO’s unified military structure
February 1966
Under Charles de Gaulle, France adopted an independent foreign policy seeking to shift Europe away from US dominance. France pursued this policy through the EEC and by withdrawing from NATO’s unified military structure, but failed to bring NATO down.
1966
The International Rice Research Institute launches its IR-8 strain of super-rice
1966
1966
Japan becomes a major investor in the newly formed Asian Development Bank
August 1966
In the 1960s, Japan took a leading role in spurring the development of East Asian economies through the Asian Development Bank.
1966
Launch of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
May 1966
Cultural Revolution attempted to purify the communist movement, leading to massive violence and social disorder. As a result, China was unable to maintain an active foreign policy for several years.
1966
Fresh purge of KWP in North Korea
October 1966
1966
First military coup in Nigeria
January 1966
1966
Nkrumah ousted by a coup in Ghana
February 1966
1966
Ba’thist regime comes to power in Syria
February 1966
1966
Large-scale Israeli raid into Jordan
November 1966
1966
Nasser regime in Egypt executes Sayyed Qutb
August 1966
1966
UNGA adopts the ‘UN International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights’
December 1966
1967
Glassboro summit (Soviet–American)
June 1967
1967
NATO’s Harmel Report
December 1967
1967
Sato announces Japan’s ‘Three Nuclear Principles’
December 1967
1967
Che Guevara killed
October 1967
1967
Beginning of Biafran War
May 1967
1967
Soviet intelligence reports massing of Israeli troops along the Syrian border
May 1967
1967
Nasser moves troops into the Sinai and closes the Straits of Tiran
May 1967
1967
Jordan accedes to the Egyptian–Syrian defence pact
May 1967
1967
Israel launches the Six-Day War
June 1967
War by Syria, Jordan and Egypt against Israel represented the peak of Arab nationalist co-ordination. Following skirmishes early in 1967, and increasing signals of Arab attack, Israel launched a pre-emptive strike, eliminating its opponents one by one, shattering the myth of Arab unity. However, Israeli hubris led to the occupation of extensive territory and unwillingness to make significant concessions.
1967
UN Resolution 242 calls for Israel to return to its pre-war borders
November 1967
1967
Arab defeat in the Six-Day War
June 1967
The Arab defeat undermined traditional secular Arab nationalism, fuelling the rise of political Islam as an alternative.
1967
De Gaulle again vetoes British application to join the EEC
November 1967
1967
Overthrow of democratic government in Greece
April 1967
1967
Start of Biafran War
May 1967
1968
(Nuclear) Non-proliferation Treaty opened for signature
July 1968
1968
Warsaw Pact troops enter Czechoslovakia
August 1968
The Soviet response to the ‘Prague Spring’ was reimposition of Soviet control, exemplifying splits within the Eastern Bloc. Soviet action also antagonized China and contributed to Sino-American rapprochement in the 1970s.
1968
Richard Nixon elected in the US
November 1968
1968
Tet offensive
January 1968
In spite of repeated assurances by US military leaders about progress in the Vietnam War, the North launched a massive offensive during the Tet holiday in early 1968. Images of chaos broadcast by the media undermined American faith in its leaders, ultimately leading Johnson to decide against running for a second term. The offensive was a military disaster, meeting none of its intended goals, but had the unintended effect of undermining US morale.
1968
Nixon elected president
November 1968
1968
540,000 US troops in South Vietnam
December 1968
1968
Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia
August 1968 Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia
1968
Record harvests in India and Pakistan as the result of using Green Revolution crops
1968
1968
Publication of Paul Ehrlich’s The Population Bomb
1968
1968
The DPRK attacks the US spy-ship Pueblo
January 1968
1968
Soviet pronouncement of the Brezhnev Doctrine
August 1968
The Brezhnev Doctrine justified Soviet intervention in Communist Bloc states, as evidenced in the reaction to the Prague Spring. This Soviet stance led to Chinese fears of intervention during the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution.
1968
First phase of the Cultural Revolution is ended
December 1968
1968
Convening of the UN Conference on Human Rights in Teheran
April 1968
1969
Willy Brandt becomes chancellor of FRG
October 1969
1969
Secret bombing campaign (MENU) of Cambodia begins
March 1969
1969
Vietnamization begins
July 1969
Nixon shifted responsibility for the Vietnam War away from American soldiers to ARVN troops in the process of Vietnamization. The US would continue to provide supplies and air power, but the withdrawal of US troops would ease domestic criticism of the war.
1969
Ho Chi Minh dies
September 1969
1969
Nixon–Sato summit reaches agreement on retrocession of the Ryukyu islands
November 1969
1969
Richard Nixon becomes president of the United States
January 1969
1969
Sino-Soviet clash on Manchurian–Russian border at Zhenbao Island
March 1969
1970
US–South Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia
April 1970
In an attempt to cut off the Ho Chi Minh trail used to supply insurgents in South Vietnam, Nixon expanded the Vietnam War to both Cambodia and Laos, leading to domestic backlash against what was perceived to be an abuse of power.
1970
Kent State University shootings
May 1970
1970
Third non-aligned summit in Lusaka
September 1970
1970
Salvador Allende elected president of Chile
November 1970
1970
Death of Nasser who is succeeded by Sadat
September 1970
1970
The Jordanian civil war also known as Black September which leads Jordan to expel the PLO
September 1970
1970
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature
October 1970
1971
Nixon announces the end of the dollar’s convertibility to gold
August 1971
1971
Four-Power Agreement on Berlin
September 1971
1971
South Vietnamese invasion of Laos (Lam Son 719)
January 1971
1971
Algeria nationalizes its French-owned oil industry
February 1971
1971
Third Indo-Pakistan War
December 1971
1971
The ‘Nixon shocks’ hit Japan
July and August 1971
The US grew increasingly dissatisfied with Japanese relations, seeking greater Japanese military contributions and reduced competition from Japanese industry. The Nixon administration announced its opening of relations with China without prior consultation of Japan, and devalued the dollar soon afterwards.
1971
ROC loses its seat in the UN
October 1971
1971
Kissinger announces that Nixon will visit China in the following year
July 1971
Nixon and Kissinger championed the policy of détente, reducing ideological confrontation of the superpowers, and calling for new modes of engagement with the Soviet Bloc. The opening of China was a key element of this new policy, leveraging Sino-Soviet mistrust to increase US diplomatic power.
1971
Purging of Lin Biao in the PRC
September 1971
1971
The PRC accedes to the Chinese permanent seat on the UNSC
October 1971
1972
Nixon in China
February 1972
Nixon and Kissinger championed the policy of détente, reducing ideological confrontation of the superpowers, and calling for new modes of engagement with the Soviet Bloc. The opening of China was a key element of this new policy, leveraging Sino-Soviet mistrust to increase US diplomatic power.
1972
Moscow Summit: SALT I and ABM Treaties signed
May 1972
1972
North Vietnamese Spring Offensive begins
March 1972
1972
US Christmas bombings of North Vietnam
December 1972
1972
UN Conference on the environment held in Stockholm
June 1972
The conference resulted in the non-binding Stockholm Declaration on human environment, signifying growing western concern with the effects of industrialization on the environment.
1972
President Marcos introduces martial law in the Philippines in response to rural unrest, despite the widespread use of Green Revolution technology
September 1972
1972
Formation of Tanaka government
July 1972
1972
Opening of Japan–PRC relations and end to Japan–ROC official ties
September 1972
1972
Park introduces new ‘Yushin’ constitution in the ROK making himself a virtual dictator
October 1972
1972
Nixon’s visit to China
February 1972
1972
Somalia offer the USSR the use of port facilities at Berbera
1972
1972
PLO attack on Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympic Games
1972
1973
Paris Peace Accords on Vietnam
January 1973
One concrete result of détente was increased capacity to negotiate an end to the Vietnam War, withdrawing US troops from an unpopular conflict.
1973
‘Yom Kippur’ War in the Middle East; oil embargo
October 1973
1973
Paris Peace Accords signed
January 1973
1973
Last US combat troops leave South Vietnam
March 1973
1973
War Powers Resolution passed by US Congress
July 1973
1973
Fourth non-aligned summit in Algiers
September 1973
1973
Arab–Israeli War and subsequent OPEC oil price hike
October 1973
1973
Park shifts ROK economy towards the development of heavy industry
January 1973
ROK also exemplified the East Asian development model with governmental assistance in the development of heavy industry.
1973
First oil shock
October 1973
1973
Military junta takes over power in a coup d’état in Uruguay
June 1973
1973
Allende’s government overthrown in Chile
September 1973
Following the Vietnam War, the US had less interest in direct interventions abroad, but continued to employ the CIA in covert actions, as in the overthrow of the elected Allende government in Chile. The Nixon administration feared that a democratically elected socialist government would provide a model for socialism in the region undermining US interests.
1973
Juan Peron returns to the presidency in Argentina
October 1973
1973
Egypt and Syria attack Israel in what is known as the October or the Yom Kippur War
October 1973
Failure in the Six-Day War led to extensive rethinking of Arab nationalism. As a result, Egypt sought peace negotiations with Israel, but could make little progress in a position of weakness. Poor Israeli intelligence missed Eygptian–Syrian plans for attack, leading to initial Israeli defeats in the war. Israel quickly regrouped and defeated the Arab states again, with US aid, but Egypt was now able to bargain from a position of equality.
1973
Denmark, Great Britain and Ireland join the EEC (Norwegians rejected membership in a referendum in 1972)
January 1973
1973
First Congressional hearings on foreign human rights infringements held in Washington
August 1973
1973
Overthrow of Allende regime in Chile
September 1973
1974
Nixon resigns
August 1974
1974
Nixon resigns
August 1974
1974
Declaration of need for New International Economic Order at UNGA
May 1974
1974
Overthrow of Caetano regime in Portugal
April 1974
1974
Overthrow of Haile Selassie in Ethiopia and replacement by the Dergue
September 1974
1974
The USSR deports Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn for his dissident activities
February 1974
1974
Jackson-Vanik amendment added to US–Soviet trade treaty
December 1974
The addition of human right conditions to a trade agreement with the Soviet Union reflected the trend during détente to link human rights standards to other agreements. While promoting human rights, this undermined the premise of détente that negotiations would avoid ideological or moral issues and focus on realpolitik.
1975
Unification of Vietnam
April 1975
1975
Helsinki Accords (CSCE)
August 1975
1975
MPLA declares the independence of the People’s Republic of Angola
November 1975
The Soviet Union perceived détente as evidence of US decline, and entered into a period of over-extension in Africa. US unwillingness to undertake military interventions after Vietnam prevented any US response to Soviet incursions, but Soviet actions undermined US support for detente.
1975
North Vietnamese attack on South Vietnam
March 1975
Following the Paris Peace Accords, the US withdrew combat troops from South Vietnam. In the wake of the Watergate scandal, the US Congress refused to authorize air strikes in support of South Vietnam when the latter was invaded by the North. As a result, the South’s military position rapidly collapsed and the country was unified under North Vietnam.
1975
Khmer Rouge takes power in Cambodia
April 1975
1975
South Vietnam surrenders
April 1975
1975
Pathet Lao abolishes monarchy in Laos
November 1975
1975
Rambouillet summit in France initiates what becomes the G-7
November 1975
1975
UNGA passes resolution declaring Zionism to be ‘racist’
November 1975
1975
Death of Jiang Jieshi
April 1975
1975
Alvor agreement on Angolan independence
January 1975
1975
South African and Cuban troops intervene in the Angolan civil war
October 1975
The fall of the Portuguese government led to re-evaluation of colonial policy, with a rapid shift to accepting Angolan and Mozambican independence. Angola rapidly slid into civil war after independence, with outside groups aiding various factions. The Soviet bloc sent military advisors and equipment, expanding Soviet intervention in African affairs.
1975
Outbreak of civil war in Lebanon
April 1975
1975
The Khmer Rouge takes power in Cambodia
April 1975
1975
The State Department appoints its first Co-ordinator for Humanitarian Affairs
April 1975
1975
UN Women’s Conference held in Mexico City
June 1975
1975
Signing of the Helsinki Accords
August 1975
1975
Indonesian invasion of East Timor
December 1975
1976
Jimmy Carter elected in the US
November 1976
1976
North–South Dialogue negotiations began in Paris
February 1976
1976
Death of Zhou Enlai
January 1976
1976
Death of Mao Zedong
September 1976
1976
A military coup removes Isabel Peron from office in Argentina
March 1976
1976
Widespread rioting in Soweto
June 1976
Uprisings tied to Black Consciousness movement and economic hardships led to South African fears of Soviet intervention. In response, the government took a hardline approach to the movement, drawing international condemnation, sanctions, and further energizing black African opposition.
1976
Syrian intervention in Lebanon
June 1976
1976
Foundation of Moscow Helsinki Group
May 1976
1977
Brandt Commission on International Development Issues established
January 1977
The Brandt Commission ultimately called for greater western aid to the developing world, settling on a level of 1 per cent of GNP. This was rejected by the US and other states in the 1980s with a shift towards trade.
1977
Start of Ogaden War between Somalia and Ethiopia, the USSR opts to back the Marxist-Leninist regime of Mengistu in Addis Ababa
July 1977
1977
South African Black Consciousness leader Steve Biko murdered in police custody
September 1977
1977
UNGA introduces a mandatory ban on arms sales to South Africa
October 1977
1977
Jimmy Carter becomes president of the United States
January 1977
1977
Foundation of Charter 77 in Czechoslovakia
January 1977
1977
The USSR arrests Yuri Orlov, a leading member of the Moscow Helsinki Group
February 1977
1977
Amnesty International awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
December 1977
1978
Conflict between Ethiopia and Somalia escalates
1978
1978
Vietnam invades Cambodia
December 1978
1978
Sino-Japanese peace treaty signed
August 1978
1978
Deng Xiaoping emerges as the PRC’s paramount leader
December 1978
1978
European Monetary System established
March 1978
1979
Shah leaves Iran
January 1979
The beginning of the Iranian Revolution heralded a further shift in US policy, with the Carter administration increasingly beleagured by events in Iran. The inability of Carter to resolve the subsequent hostage crisis in Iran contributed to the victory of Reagan in the 1980 election. As a result of the revolution, and US suspicions of Soviet complicity, the US steered further away from détente and towards confrontation.
1979
SALT II signed in Vienna
June 1979
1979
Hostage crisis begins in Iran
November 1979
1979
Soviet Union invades Afghanistan
December 1979
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan finally ended détente, the US seeing Soviet military action as part of a co-ordinated threat to US oil interests in the Middle East. Soviet actions were undertaken largely in response to the threat of Islamic nationalism in Central Asia following the Iranian Revolution rather than out of offensive aims. The Afghan War ended up becoming the Soviet equivalent of the Vietnam War, with Russian troops bogged down in an unwinnable conflict.
1979
China invades Vietnam
February 1979
Conflict in the region continued after the 1975 unification of Vietnam. Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in late 1978 led to Chinese intervention in early 1979.
1979
Egyptian–Israeli peace treaty signed
March 1979
1979
Three-Mile Island partial nuclear meltdown
March 1979
1979
Beginning of anti-government unrest in South Korea
August 1979
1979
Park Chung-Hee murdered by his KCIA chief
October 1979
1979
Chun Doo Hwan takes power in the ROK
December 1979
1979
Outbreak of Sino-Vietnamese war
February 1979
1979
Somoza dynasty in Nicaragua overthrown by the Sandinistas headed by Daniel Ortega
July 1979
1979
Lancaster House talks in London lead to agreement on majority rule in Rhodesia
December 1979
1979
Egyptian–Israeli peace treaty signed
March 1979
1979
Establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran
February 1979
The collapse of the Shah’s government led to the founding of a Islamic state dedicated to the propagation of Islamic revolution.
1979
Beginning of Soviet intervention in Afghanistan
December 1979
Soviet intervention in Afghanistan, and western-supported Mujahadeen opponents strengthened the sense of Islamic solidarity. Fighters in the war subsequently led Islamic movements elsewhere.
1979
Soviet Union invades Afghanistan
December 1979
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan finally ended détente, the US seeing Soviet military action as part of a co-ordinated threat to US oil interests in the Middle East. Soviet actions were undertaken largely in response to the threat of Islamic nationalism in Central Asia following the Iranian Revolution rather than out of offensive aims. The Afghan War ended up becoming the Soviet equivalent of the Vietnam War, with Russian troops bogged down in an unwinnable conflict.
1979
First direct elections to the European Parliament
June 1979
1980
Carter withdraws SALT II from ratification
January 1980
1980
Ronald Reagan elected in the US
November 1980
Reagan’s victory in 1980 confirmed the demise of détente, with his open calls for a more direct policy of confrontation with the Soviet Union.
1980
Publication of Brandt report
March 1980
1980
Death of Tito
May 1980
1980
Massacre of pro-democracy demonstrators in Gwanju in the ROK
May 1980
1980
Establishment of four Special Economic Zones in China
May 1980
Following the death of Mao, China embarked on economic liberalization as evidenced in the Special Economic Zones. These zones enabled western technology and investment to enter China, leading to rapid economic growth.
1980
Samuel Doe coup in Liberia ends rule by the traditional oligarchy
April 1980
1980
Robert Mugabe becomes president of Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia)
March 1980
1980
Outbreak of Iran–Iraq War
September 1980
1980
Solidarity Movement formed in Poland
August 1980
1981
Cancún North–South summit conference held
October 1981
1981
Start of US support for the Nicaraguan Contras
December 1981
The US continued covert interventions in Central America in the 1980s with operations in El Salvador and Nicaragua.
1981
Assassination of President Sadat
October 1981
1981
Takfir wa al-Hijira group assassinate President Sadat of Egypt
October 1981
1981
Ronald Reagan becomes President of the United States
January 1981
1981
Greece joins the EEC (as its tenth member)
January 1981
1982
Mexico forced to negotiate rescue package to avoid defaulting on debts
August 1982
Mexican debt renegotiation exemplified the third world debt crisis, created by excessive borrowing in the 1970s. In the 1970s, low interest rates and high commodity prices underlay the increase in borrowing, which was undermined by economic changes in the 1980s.
1982
The Falklands war between Argentina and Great Britain begins
April 1982
1982
Israeli invasion of Lebanon
June 1982
A 1975 Lebanese civil war led to Syrian intervention and the use of southern Lebanon as a base for PLO attacks. In early 1982, Lebanon attemtped to expel Syrian forces with Israeli assistance, but the failure of this plan led to direct Israeli military intervention. The loss of a key Lebanese Maronite ally left Israel mired in the Lebanese civil war until 1983.
1982
PLO evacuated from Beirut to Tunis
August 1982
1982
Massacre of Palestinian and Shi’a refugees at Sabra and Shatilla camps
September 1982
1982
The Asad regime in Syria crushes an Islamic movement in Hama
February 1982
1982
Creation of Hizb’allah in southern Lebanon
June 1982
Hizb’allah provided another form of political Islam, with a focus on the specific conflict between Palestine and Israel, with the goal of liberating southern Lebanon.
1982
Iurii Andropov becomes Secretary-General of the Soviet Union
November 1982
1983
US marines intervene on the island of Grenada
October 1983
1983
End of military rule in Argentina
December 1983
1983
Lebanese–Israeli peace agreement signed
May 1983
1983
President Reagan proposes Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)
March 1983
US plans to build a missile defence system involved a major escalation in the arms race which the Soviet Union could ill-afford.
1983
US troops overthrow regime in Grenada
October 1983
1984
Explosion of Bhopal chemical plant in India
December 1984
1984
Sahel area of Ethiopia ravaged by famine
April 1984
1984
Konstantin Chernenko becomes Secretary-General of the Soviet Union
February 1984
1985
Prime Minister Nakasone visits the Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo
August 1985
1985
‘Plaza Accord’ signed in New York in which Japan promises to increase the value of the yen
September 1985
Following increased tensions between the US and Japan over the latter’s trade surplus, Japan agreed to increase the value of the yen, thereby increasing the cost of Japanese exports to the US. Japan was attempting to shift away from an export-driven economic model, and the currency shift was also intended to spur domestic demand.
1985
End of military rule in Uruguay
February 1985
1985
Live Aid concerts in London and Philadelphia
July 1985
1985
South African president P. W. Botha publicly rejects the idea of ‘one man, one vote’
August 1985
1985
Mikhail Gorbachev ascends to power in Soviet Union
March 1985
Gorbachev’s ascendance brought a radically new approach to managing Soviet problems. In response to structural challenges in the Soviet system, he advocated Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring), broadening public discussion on reforms. The reform process soon escaped state control.
1985
Schengen Agreement eliminating border controls signed
June 1985
1985
The USSR allows the leading dissident, Elena Bonner, to go abroad for medical treatment
August 1985
1986
Doi Moi economic reform begins in Vietnam; similar reforms begin in Laos
1986
1986
Meltdown of nuclear reactor at Chernobyl
April 1986
1986
‘Baby Doc’ Duvalier ousted in Haiti
February 1986
1986
Chernobyl nuclear accident
April 1986
1986
Reagan and Gorbachev resolve to remove all intermediate nuclear missiles from Europe
October 1986
Reagan and Gorbachev established a good working relationship, negotiating significant reductions of nuclear weapons.
1986
Iran–Contra Affair revealed to public
November 1986
1986
Spain and Portugal join the EEC
January 1986
1986
Single European Act (SEA) signed
February 1986
1986
The USSR releases the dissident Anatoly Shchransky from internal exile. Orlov, Sakharov and Bonner follow later in the year.
February 1986
1986
The US withdraws backing from the Marcos regime in the Philippines
February 1986
1987
Publication of the Brundtland report on sustainable development
April 1987
1987
Lifting of martial law in Taiwan
July 1987
In the 1980s, both Taiwan and ROK shifted towards greater democratic rule, reflecting the demands of a rising middle class in the prosperous states.
1987
ROKA forced to allow first free presidential elections in the ROK
December 1987
1987
Outbreak of the first intifada
December 1987
The 1987 intifada differed from earlier conflicts in its internal focus between Palestinians and Israelis, rather than foreign war between Israel and Arab states. The conflict also relied on civil disobedience, leaving Israel with the reputation of aggressors in the war.
1987
Outbreak of the first intifada and the birth of Hamas
December 1987
Hamas was initially formed as a religious and social organization, but the first intifada led the group to champion Islamic nationalism through the creation of Islamic state in Palestine.
1987
INF Treaty signed
October 1987
1987
The USSR frees another 140 political prisoners
February 1987
1988
UNGA ordered the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to prepare a report on global warming
December 1988
1988
Death of President Jiang Jingguo in Taiwan
January 1988
1988
Seoul hosts the Olympic Games
September 1988
1988
End of Iran–Iraq War
August 1988
1988
George H. W. Bush elected president of the United States
November 1988
1989
Cambodia begins economic reform
1989
1989
Start of collapse of Japan’s ‘bubble economy’
December 1989
The increased value of the yen following the Plaza Accord did not result in greater domestic domand, but in the creation of asset bubbles, including the stock market and real estate. These collapsed after 1989, triggering an extensive deflationary period from which Japan has still not fully emerged.
1989
Tiananmen Square massacre
June 1989
The economic growth in the 1980s was accompanied by increased demands for democracy. With the shift towards Glasnost in the Soviet Union, students in China called for democracy and party reforms. The resulting government crackdown did not lead to a shift away from economic liberalization, but did lead to increasing focus on economic progress to legitimize the regime.
1989
Paraguay’s long-term dictator Alfredo Stroessner deposed in a coup
February 1989
1989
US marines land in Panama and capture Manuel Noriega
December 1989
1989
Omar al-Bashir comes to power as the result of a coup in Sudan
June 1989
1989
Soviet withdrawal of forces from Afghanistan
February 1989
1989
Death of Ayatollah Khomeini
June 1989
1989
Omar al-Bashir seizes power in Sudan
June 1989
1989
Soviet troops withdraw from Afghanistan
January 1989
1989
China puts down the Tiananmen Square protests
June 1989
1989
Poland gets first non-communist government since the Second World War
June 1989
1989
Hungary forms a non-communist government
September 1989
1989
Berlin Wall falls
November 1989
In autumn 1989, Hungary allowed East Germans to escape through its territory into the west. In early November, crowds assembled at the Berlin Wall seeking freedom to cross, and were allowed through. In the following weeks the communist governments in other eastern bloc states fell, the opening of the Wall symbolized the collapse of the Soviet system.
1989
Communist governments fall in Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania
December 1989
1989
Fall of the Berlin Wall
November 1989
1990
Opening of ROK–Soviet relations
September 1990
1990
Japanese Diet refuses to send SDF elements to serve in the first Gulf War
October 1990
1990
Augusto Pinochet resigns as President of Chile
March 1990
1990
South African president F. W. de Klerk announces the end of apartheid, the lifting of the ban on the ANC and the release of political prisoners
February 1990
The surprise announcement by de Klerk paved the way for the release of Nelson Mandela from prison and the transition to a true democracy. White South African opinion shifted in the 1980s as a result of sanctions, opposition by business interests, and the end of the Cold War.
1990
Iraqi invasion of Kuwait
August 1990
1990
The Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) become independent
March 1990
1990
Boris Yeltsin elected to presidency of Russia
May 1990
1990
Iraq invades Kuwait
August 1990
The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait triggered Operation Desert Storm by the a US-led alliance. The military action exemplified the changed strategic situation after the end of the Cold War, as the US was able to undertake military action without Soviet opposition, and in fact had Russian co-operation.
1990
Germany reunited
October 1990
After the collapse of the eastern bloc, German reunification symbolized the transformation of Europe. While European states had misgivings about the implications of German unification, Germany remained tied to the European Union.
1990
German unification
October 1990
1991
Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay agree to form the Southern Cone Common Market (MERCOSUR)
March 1991
MERCOSUR attempted to form a regional trade bloc to boost economic growth within member states, as well as improving bargaining position with other trading nations.
1991
Haiti’s democratically elected president Jean-Bertrand Aristide ousted in a military coup
September 1991
1991
Fall of Siad Barre regime in Somalia and start of descent into country becoming a ‘failed state’
January 1991
1991
Opening of the Madrid Arab–Israeli peace conference
October 1991
1991
Operation Desert Storm against Iraq begins
January 1991
1991
Warsaw Pact dissolved
April 1991
1991
Yugoslav Federation begins to fall apart
June 1991
Following Tito’s death, Yugoslavia began a slow disintegration, accelerated with the end of the Cold War. The breakup of the Federation created security challenges for Europe.
1991
US–Soviet START Agreement signed
July 1991
1991
Hardliners fail to regain power in the Soviet Union
August 1991
Angry with the direction of Soviet policy, hardliners attempted a coup to remove Gorbachev from power. Boris Yeltsin, president of Russia, defied the miltary leaders, who soon lost the support of the army. The Soviet Union was effectively defunct as a result of the coup attempt, and was formally abolished in December 1991.
1991
Soviet Union formally dissolved
December 1991
1992
UN Conference on the Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro
June 1992
The Rio Declaration was a non-binding statement recognizing principles of sustainable development, reflecting environmental concerns and tensions between the demands for development and environmental quality.
1992
National Assembly in Taiwan announces that first presidential general election will be held in 1996
May 1992
1992
Opening of ROK–PRC relations
August 1992
1992
Kim Young Sam elected as the first civilian president of the ROK since 1962
December 1992
1992
Deng Xiaoping starts tour of South China
January 1992
1992
A 12-year civil war in El Salvador ends
January 1992
1992
Army seizes power in Algeria to prevent an Islamist electoral victory
January 1992
1992
Osama Bin Laden takes sanctuary in Sudan
January 1992
1992
Algerian government suspends elections to prevent an Islamic victory, leading to civil war
January 1992
1992
Establishment of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria
March 1992
1992
Bill Clinton elected president of the United States
November 1992
1992
Treaty of European Union (TEU) signed in Maastricht
February 1992
The Maastricht Treaty forged the European Union out of the EEC, with goals of a common currency, central bank and common foreign policy.
1992
Television news broadcasts report on the prison camp at Omarska in Bosnia-Herzegovina
August 1992
1993
Cambodia becomes a constitutional monarchy
September 1993
1993
The LDP loses the first election since its formation and is replaced by a coalition government
July 1993
1993
The DPRK withdraws from the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty
March 1993
North Korean withdrawal from the NPT exemplified its shift towards nuclear blackmail, with construction of atomic weaponry and threats of war being used to extort economic concessions from the west.
1993
The Declaration of Principles (or Oslo Accords) signed in Washington
September 1993
The Oslo Accords between Israel and Palestine set principles of mutual recognition and limited self-government, allowing subsequent peace treaties between Israel and its Arab neighbour states.
1993
Creation of Jemaah Islamiya
January 1993
1993
First Islamist attempt to blow up the World Trade Center in New York
February 1993
1993
American troops attacked in Somalia
October 1993
1993
The UN establishes a war crimes tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
May 1993
1994
The LDP returns to government in coalition with the JSP
June 1994
1994
Death of Kim Il-Sung and succession of Kim Il-Jung
July 1994
1994
Former US president Carter negotiates a nuclear treaty with the DPRK
October 1994
1994
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) enters into force
January 1994
NAFTA combined the US, Canada and Mexico into a large trade bloc, vastly expanding Mexican trade with the US.
1994
Aristide returned to power in Haiti
October 1994
1994
Beginning of Rwandan genocide
April 1994
Inter-ethnic conflict spurred massive genocide in Rwanda, by Hutu against Tutsi, with the deaths of 800,000 people. The rapid action and confused foreign accounts of the events prevented effective intervention by the international community until it was too late.
1994
Nelson Mandela becomes the first democratically elected leader of South Africa
April 1994
The end of apartheid saw the election of Nelson Mandela, providing a model of democratic leadership for Africa.
1994
Signing of the Israeli–Jordanian peace treaty
October 1994
1994
Saudi Arabia revokes Osama Bin Laden’s citizenship
1994
1994
Start of the first Chechnya War
December 1994
1994
Genocide in Rwanda begins
April 1994
1994
The UN establishes a war crimes trial for the Rwandan genocide
November 1994
1995
Establishment of World Trade Organization
January 1995
1995
Signing of the Israeli–Palestinian Interim Agreement
September 1995
1995
Assassination of Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin
November 1995
1995
Srebrenica massacre of Bosnian Muslims
July 1995
1995
GATT becomes the World Trade Organization
January 1995
The creation of the WTO symbolized American ascendancy after the Cold War, with its institution of the ‘Washington Consensus’ model for economic growth.
1995
Dayton Agreements end the conflict in the former Yugoslavia
November 1995
1995
Austria, Finland and Sweden join the European Union (EU)
January 1995
With the end of the Cold War, the neutral states Austria, Finland and Sweden rapidly joined the EU.
1995
Srebrenica massacre of Bosnian Muslims
July 1995
1996
Lee Teng-hui wins Taiwan’s first democratic presidential election
March 1996
1996
The Guatemalan civil war ends with the signing of a UN-sponsored peace accord
December 1996
1996
Rwanda intervenes in civil war in eastern Congo (Zaire)
October 1996
1996
The Taliban take control of Kabul and establish the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
September 1996
The Taliban was formed through Pakistani assistance to the Pashtun people. In contrast to Iranian revolutionaries, the Sunni Taliban instituted a rule opposed to modernity.
1997
Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change signed
December 1997
The Kyoto Protocol bound the developed world to lower carbon emission levels, allowing the developing world to continue higher levels of pollution while generating economic growth.
1997
The ROK is forced to turn to the IMF to bail out its economy in the ‘Asian flu’ crisis
November 1997
1997
The veteran democrat Kim Dae Jung becomes president of the ROK
December 1997
1997
Death of Deng Xiaoping
February 1997
1997
Reversion of Hong Kong to Chinese rule
July 1997
1997
President Mobutu of Zaire falls from power
May 1997
1997
Charles Taylor ‘wins’ election in Liberia
July 1997
1997
Cease-fire agreed in Algeria with the Islamic Salvation Army
October 1997
1997
Al-Qaeda linked to massacre of tourists at Luxor in Egypt by Egyptian Islamists
November 1997
1997
Amsterdam Treaty signed
October 1997
1998
Start of new civil war in the Congo with interventions by Angola, Rwanda, Uganda and Zimbabwe
July 1998
1998
Fall of President Suharto in Indonesia
May 1998
1998
Al-Qaeda attack on the US embassies in Nairobi and Dar-es-Salaam
August 1998
1998
Belfast agreement
April 1998
1998
European Central Bank (ECB) established
June 1998
1998
The Treaty of Rome signed which laid the foundations for the establishment of an International Criminal Court
June 1998
1998
Former Rwandan prime minister, Jean Kambanda, sentenced to life imprisonment for contravening the 1948 UN Convention on Genocide
September 1998
1999
Inauguration of the G-20 meeting of finance ministers
September 1999
1999
Hugo Chavez becomes president of Venezuela
February 1999
1999
Outbreak of communal violence along religious lines in Ambon
January 1999
1999
Start of the second Chechnya War
August 1999
1999
NATO air strikes against Serbia force an end to occupation of Kosovo
March 1999
1999
Vladimir Putin becomes president of Russia
December 1999
1999
Eleven members of the EU (Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain) agree to adopt the Euro
January 1999
The adoption of the Euro greatly accelerated European integration.
1999
British Prime Minister, Tony Blair, in a speech in Chicago outlines the need to use force to remove despotic regimes from power
April 1999
1999
NATO begins bombing of strategic targets in Yugoslavia
March 1999
NATO action in Yugoslavia exemplified the responsibility to protect, and raised the related issue of state sovereignty.