1900 – 1949: The Turbulent Century

1900

German Naval Law

June 1900

1901

Formation of the Commonwealth of Australia

January 1901

Australia received dominion status, as a self-governing colony.

1901

Establishment of the Jewish National Fund

1901

The organization collected funds to be used in buying Palestinian farmland for Jewish settlement, providing early evidence of Israeli institution-building.

1901

Platt Amendment to the Cuban Constitution introduced

February 1901

Cuba adopted the US Platt Amendment into its constitution, legitimizing US control of Cuban foreign and commercial policy. The Amendment effectively made Cuba an American protectorate.

1902

Anglo-Japanese alliance

January 1902

The alliance ended British isolation, improving the British position in the Far East and allowing concentration of naval forces in Europe.

1902

Venezuela crisis begins

December 1902

1902

Signing of the Anglo-Japanese alliance

January 1902

Alliance ends Britain’s ‘Splendid Isolation’ allowing focus of naval power in home waters, as well as signalling Japan’s regional status. The Anglo-Japanese allliance kept Japanese policy aligned with Britain until the Washington Conference in 1921.

1903

Completion of the Dutch conquest of Aceh

1903

1904

Russo-Japanese War begins

February 1904

Japanese surprise attack on Russia was followed by humiliating defeat of a European power by an Asian state.

1904

Anglo-French colonial agreement (Entente Cordiale)

April 1904

The Anglo-French Entente resolved outstanding colonial disputes, and paved the way for improved relations. The agreement contained no specific defence provisions, but signalled alignment on diplomatic issues and led to increasing co-ordination in European diplomacy.

1904

Start of Russo-Japanese War

February 1904

Japanese surprise attack on Russian fleet in Port Arthur signals start of successful war for Japanese. Japan decisively defeated the Russian fleet at Tsushima in 1905, gaining a protectorate over Korea and Manchuria.

1904

Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

December 1904

The corollary claimed an American right to intervene in Latin American affairs to forestall European interference. The corollary was established as a result of the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902–3, in which European naval forces employed a blockade to force Venezuela to arbitrate debt claims.

1904

Morel starts Congo Reform Association

March 1904

1905

Revolutionary unrest in Russia

January 1905

On the heels of defeat in the Russo-Japanese War, the revolution removed Russia from Great Power politics for several years, allowing the Triple Alliance greater scope of action.

1905

First Moroccan crisis

March 1905

Germany attempted to break the new Anglo-French Entente while Russia was preoccupied with revolution, using French expansion in Morocco as a pretext. The attempt failed, as Britain stood by France and an international conference called to resolve the issue left Germany isolated.

1905

Japanese navy defeats Russian fleet at the Battle of Tsushima

May 1905

1905

Treaty of Portsmouth

September 1905

1905

New wave of pogroms in Russia

July 1905

1905

US troops land in Honduras (for the first of five times in the next 20 years)

April 1905

1906

Anglo-French military discussions begin

January 1906

1906

HMS Dreadnought launched

February 1906

The Dreadnought was the first all-big gun battleship, rendering existing battleships obsolescent. By eliminating the British preponderence in older types of battleships, the Dreadnought enabled Germany to compete with British construction from a nearly even starting point. As a result, the naval arms race accelerated as Germany and other states switched to building Dreadnought battleships.

1906

US troops land and occupy Cuba (until 1909)

September 1906

1906

Conclusion of the ‘Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies at Sea’

July 1906

1907

Second Hague Peace Conference begins

June 1907

1907

Anglo-Russian entente

August 1907

Britain and Russia reached an agreement on colonial differences in Asia, signalling closer relations in Europe, comparable to the Anglo-French Entente. As a result, the Triple Entente increased German sense of encirclement.

1907

Opening of first Imperial Conference held in London

April 1907

1908

German naval law

February 1908

1908

Bosnian crisis begins

October 1908

An Austro-Hungarian agreement with Russia contemplating the future division of Ottoman territory was exploited by Austria-Hungary to unilaterally seize Bosnia-Hercegovina, occupied by the Habsburgs since 1878. The duplicity in Austro-Hungarian action angered the Russians, but in their weakened state after the revolution of 1905–6, Russia was unable to respond. In future years, the Russian government had less room to maneuvre as public opinion was inflamed by loss of prestige in this crisis.

1908

Young Turks revolt in Constantinople

April 1908

1908

First Palestine Office of the Zionist Organization opens in Jaffa

1908

1909

Morley-Minto reforms introduced in India

May 1909

Reforms increased Indian role in local government.

1910

Japanese annexation of Korea

August 1910

1910

Formation of the Union of South Africa

May 1910

1911

Italian conquest of Ottoman Libya

March 1911

1911

Second Moroccan crisis

July 1911

The Second Moroccan, or Agadir, crisis followed further French expansion into Morocco. Once again, Britain stood resolutely by France, mobilizing its navy, while Germany received meagre compensation in African territory.

1911

Start of Chinese Revolution

October 1911

1911

Beginning of Italian conquest of Libya

September 1911

1912

First Balkan War begins

October 1912

Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Bulgaria attacked the Ottoman Empire, dividing most of the Ottoman European territory between themselves, while the Great Powers struggled to contain the conflict.

1912

Fall of Qing dynasty and the establishment of a Chinese Republic

February 1912

1912

Establishment of French protectorate over Morocco

March 1912

1912

Formation of Sarekat Islam in the Dutch East Indies

1912

Sarekat Islam was a crafts cooperative that played a formative role in Indonesian political organization.

1912

US troops land and occupy Nicaragua (until 1925)

August 1912

1912

International conference on restricting trade in narcotics held in The Hague

January 1912

1913

Second Balkan War begins

June 1913

Bulgarian dissatisfaction at its share of the spoils from the First Balkan War led this state to overestimate its position and provoke the Second Balkan War, fighting against Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, the Ottoman Empire, and Romania. Bulgarian defeat led it to side with the Central Powers in the First World War in hopes of compensation.

1913

First Arab Congress meets in Paris

June 1913

1913

First Arab Congress meets in Paris

June 1913

Meeting provided early discussion of Arab nationalism and greater autonomy from the Ottoman Empire.

1913

Woodrow Wilson becomes US president

March 1913

Wilson sought to restore morality and principle to the conduct of US foreign affairs, shifting away from the realism of Roosevelt and from Taft’s ‘Dollar Diplomacy’. Ultimately, the moralistic approach led to greater intervention in Latin American foreign affairs.

1914

Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated at Sarajevo

June 1914

The assassination of the heir to the Habsburg throne threatened a succession crisis in Austria-Hungary, and the killing by a Serbian nationalist led to heavy demands by Austria-Hungary against Serbia in July.

1914

German ‘blank cheque’ to Austria-Hungary

July 1914

German unconconditional support of Habsburg action against Serbia allowed Austria-Hungary to contemplate war, thereby instigating the July Crisis.

1914

Serbia rejects Austro-Hungarian ultimatum

July 1914

Serbian rejection of an Austro-Hungarian ultimatum, which had been designed to be unacceptable, provided the Habsburgs with a pretext to invade Serbia.

1914

Austria-Hungary attacks Serbia

July 1914

Austro-Hungarian military action against Serbia triggered Russian reaction, as the Romanovs could not afford another foreign policy failure after the Bosnian Crisis.

1914

Russia begins general mobilization

July 1914

Russian general mobilization started the timetable for the German Schlieffen Plan, which was designed to defeat France prior to completion of the slower Russian mobilization. Germany had to either rapidly begin a war in the west against France or lose the opportunity to put its main military strategy into effect.

1914

Germany declares war on Russia and France

August 1914

Following French refusal to remain neutral in the event of a Russo-German war, Germany declared war on both countries, widening a Balkan conflict into a European-wide conflagration.

1914

Britain declares war on Germany

August 1914

The German Schlieffen Plan called for invasion of France through neutral Belgian territory. The British Cabinet was undecided on entry into the war, ultimately entering the war after German violation of treaty obligations guaranteeing Belgian neutrality.

1914

First Battle of the Marne

September 1914

The Schlieffen Plan was resoundingly defeated at the First Battle of the Marne, one of the most decisive battles of the First World War. While German troops remained on French soil, the end of the German offensive meant the German strategy had failed, and a long war ensued.

1914

First Battle of Ypres

October 1914

1914

France and Britain declare war on the Ottoman Empire

November 1914

Following Turkish bombardment of Russian territory, allied declarations of war widened the scope of the conflict to the Middle East, and brought the prospect of supplying Russian forces through the Black Sea by capturing Constantinople.

1914

Japan declares war on Germany

August 1914

1914

Fractious ‘Home Rule’ debate in Britain leads to the mutiny on the Curragh

March 1914

Northern Irish resistance to Home Rule leads to division within the British army and risk of outright civil war on the eve of the First World War.

1914

Opening of the First World War

July 1914

1914

British declaration of a protectorate over Egypt

November 1914

Britain had administered Egypt as an Ottoman territory since 1882, declaring formal control upon Turkish entry in the war.

1914

Ottoman entry into the First World War on the side of the Central Powers

November 1914

1914

Panama Canal opened

January 1914

1914

US troops occupy Vera Cruz, Mexico (until November 1914)

April 1914

An early failure of Wilson’s moralist approach to foreign relations occurred with the intervention in the ongoing Mexican civil war. Following the arrest of American sailors at Vera Cruz, Wilson occupied the city, briefly uniting both Mexican factions in opposition to the US.

1914

First World War begins

July 1914

1915

German U-boats attack allied shipping

February 1915

Initially used for coastal actions, German u-boat commerce raiding posed an existential threat to British commercial lifelines, while also raising the risk of American intervention in the war over the sinking of merchant ships, such as the Lusitania.

1915

Second Battle of Ypres

April 1915

1915

London agreement (Italy, France and Britain)

April 1915

1915

Gallipoli Campaign begins

April 1915

Winston Churchill’s plan for a bold attack on the Turkish Dardanelles Straits held out the possibility of pushing the Ottoman Empire out of the war and providing supplies to Russia. The campaign was poorly planned and managed, resulting in extensive casualties among Australian and New Zealand troops, before the allies withdrew.

1915

Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary

May 1915

After negotiating with both the Central Powers and the Allies, Italy entered the war with promises of territorial gains from the Habsburg realm, but difficult terrain and unprepared Italian troops meant they were unable to advance.

1915

Battle of Jutland

May 1915

1915

Bulgaria declares war on Serbia

October 1915

1915

Serbian army collapses

November 1915

1915

Japan presents the ‘twenty-one demands’ to China

January 1915

While Europe was preoccupied fighting the First World War, Japan forced China to accept greater Japanese control of its economy, spurring Chinese nationalism as well as American and British mistrust.

1915

Start of the land phase of the Dardanelles campaign, in which ANZAC troops were used extensively at Gallipoli

April 1915

1915

Start of Hussein–McMahon correspondence

October 1915

Exchange of letters regarding the future status of Arab lands offered future independence in return for Arab revolts against the Ottoman Empire, leading to expectations of freedom in 1919.

1915

US troops land and occupy Haiti (stay until 1934)

July 1915

1915

Start of Ottoman massacre of Armenian population

April 1915

1916

Battle of Verdun begins

February 1916

Recognizing the attritional nature of the war, the German army attacked France at the historically important fortress of Verdun. Knowing the French would not surrender the fortress, the Germans proceed to bleed the French army white through extended attacks.

1916

Battle of the Somme begins

July 1916

1916

Italy declares war on Germany

August 1916

1916

Russian Brusilov Offensive

September 1916

1916

Easter rising in Dublin

April 1916

Repression of Irish revolt in the middle of the First World War spurred greater Irish resistance and ultimately independence after the war.

1916

Sykes-Picot agreement signed

May 1916

1916

Congress and the Muslim League sign the Lucknow Pact

December 1916

Co-operation between the largely Hindu INC and the Muslim League indicated a united bargaining position with Britain.

1916

Signing of the Sykes–Picot Agreement

May 1916

The secret agreement divided Ottoman territory between France and Britain. Its revelation during the war resulted in Arab outrage due to its conflict with promises in the Hussein–McMahon correspondence.

1916

US troops enter Mexico; withdrawn in February 1917

March 1916

After initial US support for Pancho Villa was withdrawn, the strongman invaded the US, killing Americans in a border town. This led to a US military intervention into the rough terrain of northern Mexico in an unsuccessful hunt for Villa, ending shortly before US entry into the First World War.

1917

Tsar Nicholas II abdicates

March 1917

Romanov abdication signals domestic turmoil leading to the Russian Revolution, pulling Russia out of the war and ultimately ushering in a Communist government.

1917

United States declares war on Germany

April 1917

American entry altered the military balance in favour of the Allies, although it would take the US another year to bring large forces to Europe.

1917

Greece declares war on Central Powers

June 1917

1917

First Battle of Passchendaele

October 1917

1917

Bolshevik Revolution in Russia

November 1917

The Russian Revolution eliminated Russia as a major belligerent, allowing Germany to shift forces west and possibly defeat the Allies before American troops arrived in great numbers.

1917

US declares war on Austria-Hungary

December 1917

1917

China declares war on Germany

August 1917

1917

Britain forms the Imperial War Cabinet that includes representatives from the Dominions

March 1917

1917

Britain declares intention to steer India towards eventual ‘self-government’

August 1917

1917

Britain issues the Balfour declaration promising a homeland for the Jewish people

November 1917

1917

Britain issues the Balfour Declaration promising the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine

November 1917

British declaration promised a Jewish homeland, partly in the hope of swaying opinion amongst Jewish populations in the US, Russia and Germany.

1917

US entry into the First World War

April 1917

1918

President Wilson outlines his Fourteen Points

January 1918

Wilson’s Fourteen Points called for national self-determination, restoration of borders, reduction of armaments, and a new international system including a League of Nations to resolve conflict, heralding a moderate peace programme in opposition to the claims advanced by the other Allies.

1918

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

March 1918

Russo-German peace treaty included massive loss of territory, indicating excessive German war aims.

1918

Armistice

November 1918

Following defeats starting in the summer of 1918, Germany accepted an armistice on Wilson’s Fourteen Points, ultimately being forced to accept harsher peace terms.

1918

Beginning of Allied intervention in Siberia

August 1918

1918

Hara Kei leads Japan’s first party government

September 1918

1918

Zionist Commission opens offices in Palestine

April 1918

1918

First World War ends

November 1918

1919

Treaty of Versailles signed

June 1919

The Treaty of Versailles included harsh treatment of defeated Germany, including massive reparations, disarmament, and acceptance of guilt for starting the war. German anger at the treaty impeded return of Germany to the international community and weakened the Weimar Government which signed the agreement.

1919

Treaty of Saint-Germain

September 1919

1919

US Senate rejects Treaty of Versailles

November 1919

1919

Treaty of Neuilly

November 1919

1919

Opening of Paris Peace Conference

January 1919

1919

Nationalist demonstrations in China against the terms of the Versailles Treaty

May 1919

Starting with student revolts, a nationalist movement is sparked by failure of China to regain Shandong territory or end the 21 Demands in the peace treaty.

1919

Wafd-led rebellion against British control over Egypt

March 1919

Revolution led to independence in 1922, Britain continuing to maintain defence of the Suez Canal and of Egypt itself.

1919

Amritsar massacre in India

April 1919

1919

Start of Turkish war of independence against Allied occupation and partition

May 1919

1919

Establishment of the mandates system under the auspices of the League of Nations

June 1919

1919

Introduction of Montagu-Chelmsford reforms in India

December 1919

Reforms had goal of ultimate self-government at the provincial level, potentially defusing Indian nationalism.

1919

First Palestinian Arab Congress convenes in Jerusalem

February 1919

1919

Foundation of the International Labour Organization

October 1919

The ILO was an example of the extension of the League of Nations operations from political and security-related to broader social issues. The ILO provided a forum for discussing labour standards.

1920

Treaty of Trianon

June 1920

1920

Treaty of Sèvres

August 1920

1920

Congress launches first civil disobedience campaign against British rule and allies itself with the Muslim Khilafat movement

September 1920

1920

Treaty of San Remo partitions the Arab lands under the Ottoman Empire

April 1920

1920

Nebi Musa riots take place in Palestine

April 1920

Early clash between Jewish settlers and Palestinians leading to temporary British halt on Jewish immigration.

1920

Establishment of the Haganah to defend Jewish property in Palestine

1920

1920

Sir Herbert Samuel appointed first British high commissioner for Palestine

July 1920

1920

Foundation of the Palestinian Executive headed by Musa Kazim al-Husayni

December 1920

1920

US troops enter Guatemala

April 1920

1921

Treaty of Riga

March 1921

1921

Reparations Commission sets German payments at 132 billion gold marks

April 1921

1921

Convening of the Washington Conference

November 1921

Washington Conference attempted to resolve several inter-related security issues in East Asia, including a nascent naval arms race between Japan and the US, unresolved questions relating to China, and a successor agreement to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. Amongst the agreements reached at Washington, a naval arms control treaty regime was formed, setting force rations for the five victorious allies in the First World War, at the ratio of 5:5:3:1.75:1.75, for the states Britain, the US, Japan, France, and Italy, respectively.

1921

Signing of the Four-Power Treaty at Washington which paves the way for the termination of the Anglo-Japanese alliance

December 1921

1921

Establishment of emirate of Transjordan and kingdom of Iraq under British control

April 1921

1921

Southern Ireland given Dominion status as the Irish Free State

December 1921

1922

Treaty of Rapallo

April 1922

Russo-German agreement united the two outcast states.

1922

Mussolini comes to power in Italy

October 1922

1922

Signing of the nine-power and the five-power treaties at Washington

February 1922

1922

Gandhi calls off the disobedience campaign following the Chauri Chaura massacre

February 1922

1922

Egypt granted independence by Britain

February 1922

1922

Chanak incident in Turkey in which Canada and South Africa refuse to follow the British lead

September 1922

1922

Establishment of the Supreme Muslim Council led by Hajj Amin al-Husayni

January 1922

1922

Issue of British White Paper on the Palestinian Mandate

June 1922

Document attempted to clarify British commitments to Israeli and Palestinian peoples made during the war. The clarification supported an Israeli homeland, and excluded obligations to Arab independence from territories west of Damascus.

1923

French and Belgium troops occupy the Ruhr industrial region of Germany

January 1923

German failure to make war reparation payments led French and Belgian forces to occupy the Ruhr to coerce Germany. The attempt succeeded in the short-term at the cost of much goodwill in the international community.

1923

Treaty of Lausanne

July 1923

1923

The Sun-Joffe agreement paves the way for the formation of the Comintern-GMD-CCP united front in China

January 1923

1923

Establishment of the Republic of Turkey under Mustafa Kemal

October 1923

1923

Britain gives self-government to South Rhodesia

October 1923

1923

Conclusion of the ‘Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations’

January 1923

1924

Allied and German delegates at London conference sign protocol ending Ruhr crisis

August 1924

1924

Dawes Plan

September 1924

The Dawes Plan reorganized German reparations payments, bringing American loans to Germany, enabling the latter to pay reparations to the Allies, and the Allies to repay war loans owed to the US.

1925

French Premier Briand proposes a European federation

September 1925

1925

Rhineland Pact signed at Locarno

October 1925

Germany accepted its new western borders in a series of agreements indicating a new European spirit of co-operation.

1925

Start of the May Thirtieth movement aimed at British imperialism in China

May 1925

1926

Treaty of Berlin

April 1926

Russo-German agreement provided neutrality in the event of war with a third party.

1926

Germany joins League of Nations

September 1926

1926

GMD launches Northern Expedition

July 1926

GMD military operation aimed at uniting China and ending regional control by warlords. While effective national government was not secured, increased nationalism was unleashed against the imperial powers.

1926

Failed PKI revolt in Java

November 1926

Communist-led revolt in Java failed to secure independence with divisions between factions with socialist goals and a broader membership seeking more immediate nationalist goals.

1926

US troops re-enter Nicaragua (stay until 1933)

September 1926

1927

World Economic Conference in Geneva

May 1927

1927

Geneva Naval Conference opens

June 1927

The Geneva Conference attempted to extend Washington Treaty regulations to smaller warships, but Anglo-American disagreement was highlighted in the discussions and the gathering failed to reach an agreement.

1927

Jiang Jieshi breaks from the First United Front

April 1927

1928

Kellogg-Briand Pact

August 1928

This agreement renounced the use of war, adhered to by a majority of nations, including the United States.

1928

Jiang Jieshi becomes president of the nationalist republican government in Nanjing

October 1928

1928

Formation of new Nationalist government in China

October 1928

Chinese GMD spurs nationalist movements throughout East Asia.

1928

Foundation of Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt

March 1928

The Muslim Brotherhood was one of the first political Islamic organizations to seek creation of the Islamic state.

1929

Young Plan

August 1929

The Young Plan modified the earlier Dawes Plan with lower payments.

1929

New York Stock Market crash

October 1929

1929

Wall Street Crash, which soon adversely affects the Japanese economy

October 1929

1929

Start of Wailing Wall riots in Jerusalem

August 1929

Large-scale rioting was driven by Jewish immigration to Palestine and resulting Palestinian fears for long-term prospects.

1929

Foundation of the Jewish Agency

1929

1929

Establishment of Shaw Commission

October 1929

Commission examined the causes of the Wailing Wall riots, exonerating British presence during the attacks, and ultimately recommending reduced Jewish immigration.

1929

Wall Street crash and the onset of the Great Depression

October 1929

1929

Young Plan

August 1929

The Young Plan attempted to maintain German commitment to repaying war reparations by lowering total amount. The US provided loans to Germany, who paid war reparations to the Western Allies, who repaid war debts to the US.

1929

Conclusion of the ‘Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War’

July 1929

1930

London Naval Conference convenes

January 1930

The London Naval Conference attempted to extend the Washington Treaty force ratios to smaller types of warships, including cruisers and destroyers. The gathering struggled to reach consensus, with greater Japanese resistance to the lower force ratio than the US and Britain, while Franco-Italian tensions prevented a single standard from being adopted by the five Washington Treaty powers.

1930

Congress launches the second civil disobedience campaign

March 1930

1930

Release of Passfield White Paper on Palestine

October 1930

Paper recommended further reduction of Jewish immigration and criticized Zionist institutions.

1930

Raphael Trujillo confirms his rule in the Dominican Republic

August 1930

Trujillo’s rule typified that of the strongmen supported by the US. While the Dominican Republic enjoyed greater stability and economic growth, civil liberties were trampled with brutal oppression of dissent.

1930

Heinrich Brüning becomes German chancellor

March 1930

1930

National Socialists make large gains in German elections

September 1930

1930

Founding of the Indochinese Communist Party

October 1930

1931

The Mukden incident sparks the Manchurian crisis

September 1931

Japanese Kwantung Army, acting without governmental authorization, invaded Manchuria, ultimately setting up a puppet government. The army sought a resource base in order to develop the economy for a possible conflict with the Soviet Union, seeking autarchy in response to the turmoil of the Great Depression. The Western response was muted, labelling Japan an aggressor in the Lytton Report of 1933, leading to Japanese withdrawal from the League of Nations.

1931

Failed communist insurrection in Vietnam

May 1931

1931

Statute of Westminster gives equal constitutional status to the Dominions

December 1931

Statute extends full equality between the dominions and Britain.

1931

Foundation of the Irgun

April 1931

1931

Austro-German customs union scheme revealed

March 1931

1931

Austrian Credit-Anstalt crashes

May 1931

1931

Britain abandons the gold standard

September 1931

1932

Sino-Japanese hostilities extend briefly to Shanghai

January 1932

1932

End of ‘party government’ in Japan

June 1932

Turmoil caused by the Great Depression, military opposition to arms limitation, and party scandals led to the discrediting and collapse of democratic government in Japan.

1932

Ottawa Conference leads to the introduction of imperial preference

July 1932

1932

Independence granted to Iraq

October 1932

1932

World Disarmament Conference Opens

February 1932

1932

Franz von Papen becomes German chancellor

May 1932

1932

Kurt von Schleicher becomes German chancellor

December 1932

1933

The League of Nations votes to adopt the Lytton Report leading to Japan leaving the organization

February 1933

1933

Franklin Roosevelt announces the ‘Good Neighbor’ policy

March 1933

The ‘Good Neighbor’ policy was another US attempt to improve relations with Latin America, by affirming the principle of non-interference in domestic affairs.

1933

Hitler becomes German chancellor

January 1933

The Weimar government suffered a gradual breakdown during the Great Depression, with credibility of democracy undermined through association with the Versailles Peace Treaty. Following an extended period of parliamentary deadlock and presidential rule by decree under Hindenberg, Hitler negotiates his way into the chancellorship, rapidly securing personal power.

1933

Franklin D. Roosevelt become US President

March 1933

1933

World Economic conference breaks down

July 1933

The collapse of the World Economic Conference exemplified the unwillingness of the Great Powers to reach co-operative solutions to the Great Depression, with each power seeking unilateral gains through protectionism. While attempting to reestablish currency exchange rates, FDR announced American disinterest in stabilizing the dollar.

1933

Germany leaves the League of Nations

October 1933

1934

Amau statement sets out Japan’s idea for a ‘Monroe Doctrine’ in East Asia

April 1934

1934

Start of CCP’s Long March from Jiangxi to Shaanxi

October 1934

1934

Start of labour unrest in the British West Indies

May 1934

Revolts highlighted economic inequality and spurred British programmes for colonial development.

1934

Death of Musa Kazim al-Husayni

March 1934

1934

Fulgencio Batista establishes dictatorship in Cuba

January 1934

1934

France rejects further disarmament talks with Germany

April 1934

1934

Abortive Nazi coup in Vienna

July 1934

1934

Soviet Union joins the League of Nations

September 1934

Soviet Foreign Minister Litvinov sought integration of the Soviet Union into the international community, as well as collective security, joining the League of Nations and entering into treaties with France and Czechoslovakia.

1935

Japan begins to sponsor the autonomy movement in North China

June 1935

1935

Opening of the Comintern seventh Congress which calls for a new united front in China in order to resist Japanese fascism

July 1935

1935

Britain sends a financial mission to China to assist with its new currency

September 1935

1935

Copper-belt strike in North Rhodesia

May 1935

Early industrial action against the British Empire, in which miners struck against the imposition of taxes.

1935

Britain passes the Government of India Act allowing Indians to take a greater role in provincial government

August 1935

1935

Hitler orders conscription in Germany

March 1935

1935

Stresa front formed

April 1935

1935

Franco-Soviet mutual assistance treaty signed

May 1935

1935

Czech–Soviet mutual assistance treaty signed

May 1935

1935

Italy begins its conquest of Ethiopia

October 1935

Italian conquest of Ethiopia, and the western disapproval of Italian actions led to a greater split between the western Allies and the revisionist Fascist government.

1936

Failed army coup d’état in Japan

February 1936

1936

Japan and Germany sign the Anti-Comintern Pact

November 1936

Japanese coordination with Germany was intended to link policies against the Soviet Union, sharing intelligence on revolutionaries and agreeing to neutrality in event of war with a third party. Japanese adherence to the pact signalled an anti-Soviet policy between Germany and Japan.

1936

Xi’an incident

December 1936

1936

Start of Arab revolt in Palestine

April 1936

1936

Anglo-Egyptian agreement leading to British troops withdrawing to the Suez Canal zone

August 1936

1936

Start of Arab Revolt

April 1936

Major Palestinian revolt against British rule occurred as war loomed in Europe.

1936

Establishment of Peel Commission

November 1936

In response to Arab Revolt, the Peel Commission recommended partition of Palestine.

1936

Anastasio Somosa consolidates his dictatorship in Nicaragua

June 1936

1936

Mussolini signals to Hitler his disinterest in Austria

January 1936

1936

German troops march into the Rhineland

March 1936

While Europe was preoccupied with the Ethiopian crisis, Germany remilitarized the Rhineland in breach of obligations in the Versailles Treaty. Western inaction allowed the Nazi fait accompli to succeed, in spite of inadequate German troops to defend the territory against the Allies.

1936

Popular Front wins French elections

May 1936

1936

Italy annexes Ethiopia (Abyssinia)

May 1936

1936

Spanish Civil War begins

July 1936

The Spanish Civil War became a proxy conflict for the European powers, with Italy, Germany and the Soviet Union sending military supplies.

1936

German–Japanese Anti-Comintern Pact

November 1936

1936

Mussolini announces Rome–Berlin Axis

November 1936

1937

Formation of Konoe government in Japan

June 1937

1937

Outbreak of Sino-Japanese War

July 1937

Marco Polo Bridge Incident led to a war neither the Chinese nor Japanese governments sought, yet which neither could avoid. The inability of Japan to rapidly defeat China led to Western misperception of Japanese weakness.

1937

Signing of Sino-Soviet non-aggression pact

August 1937

1937

Formation of second united front in China

September 1937

1937

President Roosevelt makes his ‘quarantine speech’

October 1937

1937

Japan initiates the Nanjing massacre when the Nationalist capital falls to its troops

December 1937

1937

Announcement of provincial elections results in India

February 1937

1937

Hajj Amin al-Husayni forced to flee Palestine due to his role in the Arab Revolt

October 1937

1937

Neville Chamberlain becomes British prime minister

May 1937

1937

Hossbach Conference

November 1937

1937

Italy joins Anti-Comintern Pact

November 1937

Italian entry into the pact marked the final split between Italy and the west, after the Stresa Front initiative failed to halt German expansion.

1937

Italy leaves the League of Nations

December 1937

1938

Japan calls off peace talks with Jiang’s regime

January 1938

1938

Konoe declares the creation of the ‘New Order in East Asia’

November 1938

Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere’ sought greater integration of East Asian economies at the expense of European colonial powers, but also solely to benefit Japanese industry. Japan attempted to harness growing nationalism in the region, yet Japanese statements were undermined by aggressive policies.

1938

Evian international conference on Jewish refugees from Germany

July 1938

1938

Kristallnacht destruction of Jewish property in Nazi Germany

November 1938

Increased German violence led to further Jewish immigration pressures in Palestine.

1938

Mexico nationalizes all property held by foreign oil companies

March 1938

One success of the ‘Good Neighbor’ policy was with US–Mexican relations. When Mexico nationalized foreign oil company holdings in 1938, the US accepted Mexican actions and negotiated compensation in 1941.

1938

Germany invades Austria (Anschluss)

March 1938

Germany invaded Austria to preempt an Austrian plebiscite on German unification. The Austrian public accepted German rule, providing Germany with greater resources for rearmament. The rapidity of German action surprised the west, undermining the allied goal of keeping the two states separate.

1938

May ‘weekend’ crisis

May 1938

1938

Czechoslovak Crisis

September 1938

1938

Munich Agreement (Germany, Britain, France, Italy)

September 1938

In response to the rapid development of the Austrian invasion, the west took a greater interest in managing the Czechoslovak Crisis. When Germany demanded protection of minorities in the Sudetenland, Chamberlain sought direct negotiation. The West was divided over what they perceived to be legitimate German grievances against the Versailles settlement, while western military planners overestimated German military strength and sought time to prepare for war. The resulting Munich Agreement has been viewed as the epitome of the policy of appeasement, although more recent evaluations have taken a more nuanced view of western policy.

1938

Kristallnacht: brutal attacks on Jews in Germany and Austria

November 1938

1938

Franco-German declaration

December 1938

1938

Evian international conference on Jewish refugees from Germany

July 1938

1938

The Sudeten crisis sees Germany pervert the concept of minority rights in its own interests

May-September 1938

Nazi Germany exploited the inter-war focus on collective minority rights to justify aggressive expansion into neighbouring states. In reaction to these episodes, post-1945 human rights focused increasingly on individual rights.

1939

Japan blockades the British and French concessions at Tianjin

June 1939

1939

The United States announces its intention to abrogate its commercial treaty with Japan

July 1939

1939

Start of the European War

September 1939

1939

Britain declares war on behalf of India

September 1939

1939

The House of Commons votes to adopt the MacDonald White Paper

May 1939

White Paper abandoned idea of partition and replaced it with immigration limits.

1939

Declaration of Panama

October 1939

After the outbreak of the Second World War, the Western Hemisphere decreed a neutrality zone in American waters in an act of solidarity.

1939

German troops occupy rump Czech state

March 1939

1939

Anglo-French guarantees to Poland

March 1939

After Germany annexed the rump Czech state, the western Allies belatedly made security guarantees to Poland, Romania, and Greece, signalling an intent to uphold the territorial order against further Axis encroachments.

1939

Italy seizes Albania

April 1939

1939

Anglo-French guarantees to Greece and Romania

April 1939

1939

Molotov becomes Soviet foreign minister

May 1939

1939

French and British military missions in Moscow

August 1939

1939

Nazi-Soviet Pact

August 1939

After the Munich Agreement, in which Soviet diplomats had been sidelined and collective security abandoned, both Germany and the west courted Soviet favour in the coming war. The Soviet Union ultimately sided with Germany, agreeing on a division of Poland, buying time for Soviet rearmament while avoiding a western imperialist war.

1939

Germany attacks Poland

September 1939

1939

Britain and France declare war on Germany

September 1939

1939

Germany attacks Poland

September 1939

1939

Britain and France declare war on Germany

September 1939

1939

Hitler’s peace overture

October 1939

1939

US amends neutrality laws to permit ‘cash and carry’

November 1939

1939

Soviet Union attacks Finland

November 1939

The Soviet Union exploited the Nazi-Soviet Pact to push its boundaries west, expecting eventual German aggression. Its attack on Finland backfired, the Finns halting Russian advances in a winter campaign.

1940

Burma Road crisis

July 1940

1940

Formation of the second Konoe Cabinet with Yosuke Matsuoka as foreign minister

July 1940

1940

Japanese occupation of north Indochina

September 1940

1940

American, British and Dutch sanctions against Japan introduced

September 1940

Increased western sanctions were intended to counter Japanese expansion in Indochina and the continued Sino-Japanese War. Ultimately, western sanctions prohibiting the sale of strategic materials such as oil led Japan to seek a rapid military strike, facing a closing window of opportunity.

1940

Japanese signing of Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy

September 1940

The Tripartite Pact was intended to deter the US and Britain through the risk of a two-front war, coercing them into accepting Japanese expansion in South-East Asia.

1940

Britain reopens the Burma Road

October 1940

1940

Muslim League issues Lahore resolution calling for a separate Islamic state in post-Raj India

April 1940

1940

Foundation of the Lehi, also known as the Stern Gang

August 1940

1940

Germany invades Denmark and Norway

April 1940

1940

German offensive in the west begins

May 1940

In contrast to the stalemate in the First World War, the German offensives in May 1940 rapidly rout Allied armies, conquering Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg. By June, France itself falls, leaving Britain to fight the war alone, while Italy enters the war.

1940

Winston Churchill becomes British Prime Minster

May 1940

1940

Italy declares war on France and Britain

June 1940

1940

France and Germany and Italy conclude armistice agreements

June 1940

1940

Royal Navy attacks the French fleet anchored at Mers el-Kebir

July 1940

1940

Britain closes Burma Road to China

July 1940

1940

Battle of Britain begins

August 1940

British refusal to concede defeat, and German inability to directly invade Britain, leads to German attempts to defeat Britain through air power. The German bombing campaign ultimately fails, and Nazi Germany shifts east, hoping to defeat the Soviet Union before its rearmament programme is complete.

1940

US exchanges 50 destroyers with Britain for loan of British bases

September 1940

Franklin Roosevelt gradually unravelled the isolationist American stance in the war, bringing US support for Britain. The destroyers for bases deal provided Britain with warships to convoy its merchant trade across the Atlantic, while the US increased its presence in the Atlantic u-boat campaign by operating from British bases.

1940

US breaks Japanese diplomatic code

September 1940

1940

Japanese troops occupy northern Indochina

September 1940

1940

US offers China a $50 million loan

September 1940

1940

Tripartite Pact (Germany, Japan and Italy)

September 1940

1940

German troops occupy Romania

October 1940

1940

Italy attacks Greece

October 1940

1940

Roosevelt elected for a third term as US President

November 1940

1940

Hitler issues order for attack on Soviet Union

December 1940

1940

Japan occupies North Indochina

September 1940

1941

Opening of the Hull-Nomura talks

March 1941

1941

Soviet-Japanese neutrality pact signed

April 1941

The Soviet-Japanese neutrality pact signalled a Japanese intent to focus on China and South-East Asia rather than co-ordinating with Germany in attacking the Soviet Union.

1941

Japanese occupation of South Indochina

July 1941

1941

American, British and Dutch oil sanctions against Japan introduced

July 1941

1941

Formation of Hideki Tojo’s government in Japan

October 1941

1941

Japan launches attacks on American, British and Dutch territory

December 1941

1941

Roosevelt and Churchill issue the Atlantic Charter

August 1941

Atlantic Charter states war goals of self-determination, indicating US commitment to colonial independence after the war.

1941

Sinking of the refugee ship Struma

February 1941

Sinking of the ship stoked Jewish anger against British restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine.

1941

Hajj Amin al-Husayni meets with Mussolini and Hitler

October and November 1941

1941

Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor

December 1941

1941

Lend Lease legislation passed in US Congress

March 1941

1941

Germany invades Yugoslavia

April 1941

1941

Soviet Union and Japan sign a neutrality pact

April 1941

1941

Germany attacks Soviet Union

June 1941

The Nazi attack on the Soviet Union was a massive blitzkrieg attack seeking to knock the Soviets out of the war in a single campaign. Ultimately, the attack failed with the onset of a brutal Russian winter. By bringing the Soviet Union into the war, Germany vastly extended the scale of the conflict.

1941

Britain and Soviet Union conclude mutual assistance treaty

July 1941

1941

Japan occupies southern Indochina

July 1941

1941

Roosevelt and Churchill meet at Argentin+B45a conference

August 1941

1941

Atlantic Charter

August 1941

1941

Japan decides on war against the United States and Britain

September 1941

1941

US confirms suspension of trade with Japan

October 1941

1941

US amends neutrality legislation

November 1941

1941

Japan attacks Pearl Harbor

December 1941

The Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, co-ordinated with Japanese attacks across the Pacific and South-East Asia, immobilized the American fleet long enough to capture South-East Asian resources in the Dutch East Indies, Indochina and Malaya. Japan gambled that the US would be unable to roll back the rapid Japanese gains without major casualties, which would sap the American will to fight.

1941

US and Britain declare war on Japan

December 1941

1941

China declares war on Japan and Germany

December 1941

1941

Germany and Italy declare war on US

December 1941

1941

Vietminh founded

May 1941

1942

Fall of Singapore to Japan

February 1942

The fall of Singapore was the single greatest British military defeat, shattering the myth of European invincibility.

1942

Cripps mission to India and new promise of self-government

March 1942

Labelled a ‘post-dated cheque on a failing bank’, Cripps promises Indian dominion status after the war in return for co-operation during the conflict, in the midst of Japanese offensives in South-East Asia and Burma.

1942

Congress launches ‘Quit India’ campaign

July 1942

INC civil disobedience campaign in the midst of the Second World War resulted in large-scale arrests of INC leadership and weakened the INC relative to other parties during negotiations leading to independence.

1942

Wannsee Conference held in Germany to arrange for the ‘final solution’ of ‘the Jewish problem’

January 1942

1942

American Zionists release the Biltmore Program calling for a Jewish state in Palestine

May 1942

1942

Japan invades Dutch East Indies and Borneo

January 1942

1942

Declaration of the United Nations signed by 26 Allied nations

January 1942

1942

British surrender at Singapore

February 1942

1942

First 1,000-bomber British air raid on Germany

May 1942

1942

Japan captures Burma and reaches India

May 1942

1942

Battle of Coral Sea

May 1942

1942

US forces in Philippines surrender

May 1942

1942

Japanese navy defeated at Midway

June 1942

The turning point of the Pacific War occurred when a Japanese offensive in the Western Pacific was blunted by the US n+C65avy, Japan losing four aircraft carriers and irreplaceable veteran pilots. Nonetheless, the US still needed a significant amount of time to build up forces capable of defeating Japan.

1942

Germans begin a drive toward Stalingrad

July 1942

1942

Stalin and Churchill meet in Moscow

August 1942

1942

Battle of Stalingrad begins

September 1942

The turning point of the Russian campaign, Hitler launched a major southern offensive in 1942, ultimately refusing to allow a withdrawal from Stalingrad in the face of Soviet counterattacks. An entire German army surrendered at Stalingrad, signalling a shift of the initiative to the Soviet Union.

1942

Japanese aircraft bomb Darwin Australia

November 1942

1942

US forces land in North Africa

November 1942

1942

German and Italian troops invade unoccupied Vichy France

November 1942

1942

Wannsee Conference held in Germany to arrange for the ‘final solution’ of ‘the Jewish problem’

January 1942

1943

Red Army offensive at Stalingrad

January 1943

1943

German army at Stalingrad surrenders

February 1943

1943

Japanese forces withdraw after defeat at Guadalcanal

February 1943

1943

Germany begins withdrawal from Tunisia

March 1943

1943

German troops in North Africa surrender

May 1943

1943

Germans suspend U-boat operation in North Atlantic

May 1943

1943

German army begins Kursk offensive

July 1943

1943

Mussolini’s government falls

July 1943

1943

Allies invade Sicily

August 1943

1943

Italy surrenders to the Allies

September 1943

Following the Allied invasion of Sicily, Italian support for the war and for Mussolini’s Fascist government collapsed, and he was ousted. Italian support for the war had never been strong, and weak Italian performance in the Balkans and North Africa confirmed popular views that the war was not serving Italian interests.

1943

Mussolini re-establishes Fascist government in northern Italy

September 1943

1943

Italy declares war on Germany

October 1943

1943

Red Army offensive into the Ukraine

November 1943

1943

Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill meet at Teheran

November 1943

1943

The Allied Powers decide that individuals can be put on trial for war crimes

October 1943

1944

Start of Jewish Revolt in Palestine

February 1944

1944

Red Army enters Poland

January 1944

1944

Allies invade Italy

January 1944

1944

Red Army relieves Leningrad

January 1944

1944

Red Army begins offensive into Belorussia

March 1944

1944

German army in Crimea surrenders

May 1944

1944

US bombing raids against Japan begin

June 1944

1944

Allies enter Rome

June 1944

1944

D-Day landings

June 1944

June 6, 1944 landings on Normandy fulfilled western Allied pledges to the Soviet Union to open a second front against Nazi Germany. Stalin had clamored for an invasion since 1942, and had been repeatedly rebuffed by Churchill, who preferred aerial bombardment and Mediterranean campaigns to a direct frontal attack on Germany. By 1944, allied air superiority and German preoccupation with the Eastern Front allowed a rapid breakout from the Normandy beaches and collapse of the German position in the west.

1944

British and Canadian troops capture Caen

July 1944

1944

Hitler survives assassination attempt

July 1944

1944

Warsaw uprising

August 1944

1944

Liberation of Paris

August 1944

1944

Red Army takes Bucharest

August 1944

1944

Finland and Soviet Union agree cease-fire

September 1944

1944

Battle of Leyte Gulf

October 1944

1944

Allies liberate Athens

October 1944

1944

Opening of Dumbarton Oaks conference on the United Nations

August 1944

1945

Defeat of Germany reveals the extent of the Holocaust

May 1945

1945

Argentina becomes the last Latin American country to declare war on Germany

March 1945

1945

Red Army captures Warsaw

January 1945

1945

Red Army liberates Auschwitz

January 1945

1945

Yalta Conference

February 1945

The Yalta Conference set Big Three policy for post-war planning in Europe, marking the decline in Allied diplomatic cooperation.

1945

US forces invade Japanese-held Iwo Jima

February 1945

1945

US and Filipino troops capture Manila

March 1945

1945

Tokyo firebombed

March 1945

1945

Allied offensives into the Ruhr

April 1945

1945

Red Army reaches Berlin

April 1945

1945

Hitler commits suicide

April 1945

1945

Germany surrenders

May 1945

1945

Japanese forces at Okinawa surrender

June 1945

1945

Allies divide up Germany into occupation zones

June 1945

1945

First 1,000-bomber raids on Japan

July 1945

1945

First atomic bomb test

July 1945

1945

Soviet Union declares war on Japan

August 1945

1945

Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki

August 1945

1945

Japan surrenders

September 1945

1945

United Nations established

October 1945

1945

Nuremberg War Crimes trials begin

November 1945

1945

Yalta Conference

February 1945

At the Yalta Conference, the Big Three arranged post-war policy towards defeated Germany and Eastern Europe, with ambiguity about democracy and independence in the region.

1945

Germany Surrenders

May 1945

1945

Potsdam Conference

July-August 1945

Last major wartime conference of the Big Three, agreed on division of Germany into occupation zones and terms of Japanese surrender, marking end of Grand Alliance co-operation.

1945

Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki

August 1945

1945

Soviet entry into the Pacific War

August 1945

1945

Sino-Soviet treaty

August 1945

1945

Termination of the Pacific War

August 1945

1945

Viet Minh announces the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam

August 1945

French rule in Indochina collapsed in 1941 with Japanese occupation. With the end of the war, Vietnam declared independence from France, setting up a conflict with its former colonial master. France needed Vietnamese resources for reconstruction in Europe, and sought to rehabilitate its prestige in the world, requiring maintenance of the empire. Unlike the case of Indonesia, the US supported French goals of restoration, as the US needed France as a major ally in Europe.

1945

Sukarno declares the independence of Indonesia

August 1945

Indonesian independence also followed the collapse of European colonial rule, and the power vacuum created by the defeat of Japan. The Netherlands sought to reestablish control of the East Indies, but US opposition blocked its colonial ambitions.

1945

General Douglas MacArthur appointed as Supreme Allied Commander Pacific and takes charge of the allied occupation of Japan

August 1945

US occupation of Japan initiated a process of democratization and reform, although the Emperor remained in power as a figurehead. US policy towards Japan would soon shift to economic reconstruction, as the US sought an ally to replace China.

1945

American and Soviet troops enter their respective zones of occupation in Korea

August 1945

1945

Return of British colonial control over Hong Kong

August 1945

1945

Start of Marshall mission to China

December 1945

1945

Ho Chi Minh declares Vietnam independent (Democratic Republic of Vietnam)

September 1945

1945

Foundation of UN Food and Agricultural Organization

October 1945

1945

Termination of the Pacific War

August 1945

1945

General Douglas MacArthur appointed as Supreme Allied Commander Pacific and takes charge of the allied occupation of Japan

August 1945

1945

American and Soviet troops enter their respective zones of occupation in Korea

August 1945

1945

Japan signs the official surrender document on the USS Missouri

September 1945

1945

Britain introduces the second Colonial Development and Welfare Act

December 1945

With Asian colonies rapidly reaching independence, the imperial powers had a greater need for African resources for post-war reconstruction. Britain recognized the need for colonial development in order to maintain loyalty to empire. However, reforms only increased the drive for independence.

1945

The Second World War ends in Europe

May 1945

1945

San Francisco conference opens which establishes the UN Charter

April 1945

The Great Powers initially sought a focus on security in the UN, but revelations of the Holocaust shifted attention towards issues of human rights. A UN Commission on Human Rights was formed which prepared the Universal Declaration on Human Rights.

1945

Opening of Nuremburg War Crimes Trial

November 1945

1946

Bombing of the King David’s Hotel in Jerusalem kills 91 people

July 1946

Irgun militant attack on headquarters of British government in Palestine was deadliest attack on British forces throughout the Mandate era.

1946

Tokyo War Crimes trials begin

May 1946

1946

Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech

March 1946

1946

Marshall arranges a short-lived cease-fire in China

January 1946

1946

Soviet withdrawal from Manchuria

March 1946

1946

Britain establishes controversial Malayan Union

April 1946

1946

Start of Chinese Civil War

April 1946

1946

The United States grants independence to the Philippines

July 1946

1946

Start of Viet Minh’s war of independence against France

December 1946

1946

Establishment of the World Health Organization

July 1946

1946

General Juan Peron becomes president of Argentina

February 1946

1946

Britain establishes an African majority in the legislative council of the Gold Coast (Ghana)

March 1946

1946

Winston Churchill calls for ‘a kind of United States of Europe’ in a speech in Zurich

September 1946

1946

Opening of Tokyo War Crimes Trial

May 1946

1947

Britain refers the problem of Palestine to the UN

February 1947

1947

UNSCOP proposes the partition of Palestine

November 1947

The proposal called for separate Palestinian and Israeli states, with scattered territorial enclaves, and an internationalized city of Jerusalem, together with economic union and protection of minority religious rights. UN General Assembly adoption of the resolution sparked fighting by Palestinians.

1947

Creation of the Bizone in Germany

January 1947

1947

Truman Doctrine

March 1947

In response to revolution in Greece and threats to Turkey, the US pledged support to any regime seeking to counter Communist threat.

1947

Marshall Plan speech

June 1947

The Marshall Plan provided economic assistance to aid in the recovery of devastated Europe after the Second World War. The plan was intended to ameliorate the suffering and dislocation by spurring economic growth, thereby undermining popular support for radical regimes. Aid was offered to all European states, with the Soviet satellite states refusing assistance.

1947

COMINFORM established

September 1947

1947

Independence of India and Pakistan

August 1947

Britain accepted independence of a partitioned India in 1947, lacking military resources to maintain control against popular will.

1947

Indo-Pakistani war over Kashmir starts

October 1947

1947

Nehru hosts Asian Relations Conference in New Delhi

April 1947

1947

Independence of India and Pakistan

August 1947

1947

GMD violently suppresses revolt in Taiwan

February 1947

1947

Implementation of new Japanese constitution

May 1947

1947

Rio Treaty (Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance) signed

September 1947

1947

France establishes the Fonds d’Investissement et de Développement Economique et Social des Territoires d’Outre-Mer (FIDES)

1947

1947

Marshall Plan announced

June 1947

1948

Establishment of the state of Israel

May 1948

1948

Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq send forces to attack Israel

May 1948

The Palestinian–Israeli conflict of November 1947 escalated into an international war following Israeli declaration of independence. Despite initial setbacks, Israeli victory resulted in capture of territory beyond UN demarcation in 1947. Arab unity was shaken and Palestinians were left with refugee status.

1948

Communist takeover in Czechoslovakia

February 1948

The unexpected Communist coup in Czechoslovakia increased western perception of the Soviet threat dramatically.

1948

Berlin Blockade begins

June 1948

The Soviet Union closed land routes to western occupation zones in Berlin, leading the west to respond with an airlift, sending supplies by airplane to Berlin. In a diplomatic victory for the west, the Soviets eventually reopened land supply routes.

1948

Independence of Burma

January 1948

1948

Independence of Ceylon (Sri Lanka)

February 1948

1948

Britain establishes Federation of Malaya

February 1948

1948

Start of Malayan emergency

June 1948

1948

Establishment of the Republic of Korea

August 1948

1948

Establishment of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

September 1948

1948

Failed PKI revolt against the Indonesian republic

September 1948

1948

CCP achieves victory in Manchurian campaign

December 1948

1948

Soviet–Finnish Security Pact signed

April 1948

1948

The Soviet Union expels Yugoslavia from the Cominform

June 1948

1948

Establishment of the Republic of Korea

August 1948

1948

Establishment of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

September 1948

1948

The Truman administration adopts NSC13/2 setting out the need for the economic reconstruction of Japan

October 1948

Initial US post-war policy towards Japan focussed on democratization and demilitarization. The collapse of nationalist China spurred efforts to revitalize the Japanese economy, enabling Japan to play a stabilizing role in the East Asian economy.

1948

Establishment of Yoshida Cabinet

October 1948

1948

Organization of American States (OAS) formed

April 1948

Following the Rio Treaty the OAS was established to co-ordinate hemispheric defence co-operation and resolve regional disputes.

1948

Anti-British riots take place in Accra

February 1948

1948

The National Party under D. F. Malan comes to power in South Africa on the platform of introducing apartheid

June 1948

1948

The UNGA votes to adopt the ‘UN Universal Declaration on Human Rights’ and the ‘UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide’

December 1948

In spite of General Assembly adoption, opposition by the Soviet Union and several other states resulted in a non-binding declaration on human rights rather than a convention. In contrast, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide did become binding on ratifying states in 1951.

1949

Armistice negotiations start between Israel and the Arab states of Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria

January 1949

1949

Israeli–Egyptian armistice agreement concluded

February 1949

1949

Israeli–Lebanese armistice agreement concluded

March 1949

1949

Israeli–Jordanian armistice agreement concluded

April 1949

1949

Israeli–Syrian armistice agreement concluded

July 1949

1949

COMECON established

January 1949

1949

NATO Treaty signed

April 1949

In response to increasing perceptions of Soviet threats in Europe, the US entered into a military alliance with western European states, indicating a clear intention of the US to remain engaged in European stability, and marking the end of isolationism.

1949

Berlin Blockade ends, FRG established

May 1949

1949

Soviet Union successfully tests atomic bomb

September 1949

Soviet acquisition of an atomic bomb, several years before the west had anticipated, ultimately led to a US ‘Red Scare’. Having lost the atomic monopoly, US policy had to shift in accepting greater risks in confrontation with the Soviet Union.

1949

DRG established; PRC established

October 1949

1949

UN brokers cease-fire in Kashmir fighting

January 1949

1949

Mao announces that the new China will ‘lean to one side’ in the Cold War

June 1949

1949

The CCP establishes the People’s Republic of China

October 1949

Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War undermined US goals of a nationalist China as a regional balancing power. China rapidly took up the cause of anti-colonialism in the region, gradually parting ways with the Soviet Union.

1949

The Netherlands acknowledges independence of Indonesia

December 1949

1949

The ROC retreats to Taiwan

December 1949

1949

Nehru convenes second Asian Relations Conference to protest against Dutch ‘police action’ in Indonesia

January 1949

1949

President Truman in his inaugural speech commits the United States to the provision of development aid under the ‘point four’ scheme

January 1949

1949

Introduction of austerity programme – the Dodge Line

February 1949

1949

The CCP establishes the People’s Republic of China

October 1949

1949

The Arab states, aside from Iraq, conclude armistice agreements with Israel

January 1949

1949

Creation of the Council of Europe

May 1949

The Council of Europe was an early step towards European integration through an organization dedicated to protecting democracy and human rights in Europe.

1949

Geneva conventions on war revised to extend POW status to members of resistance movements and civilians within civil wars

August 1949