The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft

Chapter 5: Altered States of Consciousness 

Chapter Summary

Reflective Video Activity 

Ch. 5 Video Reflective Activity on Altered States of Consciousness 

View the TED Talk by Anil Seth (2017), “Your Brain Hallucinates Your Conscious Reality,” at https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_seth_your_brain_hallucinates_your_conscious_reality (ca. 16 min.) 

  1. After viewing this TED Talk, how would you define consciousness? An altered state of consciousness? 
  1. What are the properties of consciousness? What is the role of belief in consciousness? 
  1. How might consciousness itself be an “altered state of consciousness”? 
  1. As a person, how do we perceive and experience the inside body differently from the outside body? 

Multiple Choice Questions 

The Mandan Okipa ritual among the Plains Indians includes the experience of altered states of consciousness. What kind of ritual is this?

The Yanomamo use an hallucinogenic snuff referred to as:

In altered states of consciousness across cultures, which of the following is the most critical and shared element?

When the brain's orientation system is deprived and the individual begins to sense a connection with the supernatural the individual is in a _____ state.

Altered states of consciousness in anthropology are routine associated with all of the following except:

Case Studies 

Altered states of consciousness are practiced in many different religions. View the clips provided below and what you have learned in the chapter and consider the following: 

  • Summarize/explain the mechanism (or vehicle) used to achieve an altered state of consciousness 
  • Why do you think this particular mechanism (or vehicle) is successful at prompting an altered state of consciousness? 
  • Compare the various mechanisms (or vehicles) in the clips – which ones seem most physically rigorous to you? Or least? Why? Have you experienced any of these? 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bPelyxgvTv8 (drumming, digeridoo)  

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVbd5AotD-o (dancing, Whirling Dervish, sema ritual, Sufism) 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qeZwgv4hHgQ (singing, Gregorian Chant, Catholicism, Italy) 

Study Questions

  1. What are the various sensations and characteristics that might be experienced in an altered state of consciousness? 
  1. Altered states of consciousness include familiar experiences such as dreaming and daydreaming. Describe any such experiences that you have had. How do they fit the description of an altered state of consciousness in this chapter?  
  1. How do non-chemical triggers like pain, fasting, and fatigue contribute to altered states of consciousness? How might these experiences different than those induced by psychotropics? 
  1. Attend a religious service and pay close attention to any experiences that could be labeled as an altered state of consciousness. Describe the experience. What were the conditions that led to the experience? How do the physical layout of the church, temple, or mosque; the presence of ritual objects; and the playing of music help to produce an altered state of consciousness? 
  1. What is the role of an altered state of consciousness in the religious experience? Why are they important across cultures? 
  1. How are altered states of consciousness used in shamanic cultures? 

Suggested Readings  

Dawson, Alexander S. The Peyote Effect. From the Inquisition to the War on Drugs (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018). A borderland study regarding the conflict over who has the legal right to consume Peyote. 

Maroukis, Thomas C. The Peyote Road. Religious Freedom and the Native American Church (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010). A contemporary history of the Native American Church and its legal struggles. 

Muraresku, Brian C. The Immortality Key. The Secret History of the Religion with No Name (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2020). A controversial study that examines possible hallucinogenic connections to the sacred wine of the Christian Eucharist. 

Schultes, Richard Evans. Where the Gods Reign. Plants and Peoples of the Columbian Amazon (Santa Fe: Synergetic Press, 2022). Richly illustrated with his photographs, Schultes describes the Amazon rainforest, its flora, fauna, Indigenous peoples, their customs, drugs, and medicines. 

Wasson, R. Gordon and Albert Hoffman, Carl A. P. Ruck, The Road to Eleusis: Unveiling the Secret of the Mysteries (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2008). A controversial study that examines the use of hallucinogens in ancient Greek rituals devoted to Persephone and Demeter. 

Autobiographies about Personal Experiences with Hallucinogens 

Castañeda, Carlos. The Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowledge (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1968). Castañeda, a professed psychedelic anthropologist, describes his experiences using psychotropics while conducting fieldwork among the Yaquis. 

Suggested Websites  

https://www.newportacademy.com/resources/substance-abuse/ayahuasca/ (An overview of the origins of ayahuasca, its legality, and medical uses) 

https://www.justice.gov/olc/opinion/peyote-exemption-native-american-church (DOJ website specifying an exemption for Peyote use by members of the Native American Church) 

https://hraf.yale.edu/ehc/summaries/altered-states-of-consciousness (Human Relations Area Files website examining altered states across cultures) 

https://www.shamanism.org/ (Foundation for Shamanic Studies) 

Suggested Video 

In Jesus’ Name (Al Clayton, 1991) – https://www.folkstreams.net/films/in-jesus-name – documentary film on Southern snake-handling churches in Georgia and Alabama; also documentary and compelling as an example of faith is a photojournalism piece at https://www.popphoto.com/american-photo/lauren-ponds-intimate-view-west-virginia-serpent-handlers/ on the death of Pastor Mark Wolford (West Virginia) 

Hallucinogens – Intro to Psychology – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bG5gbXrTb0M – brief overview of the pharmacological effects of hallucinogens 

Psychedelics as Medicine: The History of Peyote – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RVfA6sR7OMI – Indigenous members of the Native American Church discuss how Peyote is a medicine 

India: Pilgrims of Ganges (Juan Novoa, Explora Films, 2014) – following a journey to the Ganges and an encounter with Hindu sadhus 

Sufi Soul (Simon Broughton, Electric Sky, 2005) – examination of Sufi music and the whirling dervishes of Turkey 

Altered States of the Human Mind: Altered States in Human Rituals – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NSwYXxTmRc4 – review of the role of altered states of consciousness in religious ritual 

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